Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-02T18:06:06.638Z Has data issue: true hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

More Trouble With Henry: The Historiography of Medieval Germany in the Angloliterate World, 1888–1995

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2008

Edward Peters
Edward Peters
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Horst Fuhrmann's recent survey of medieval hostility toward Germans and their political structures, chiefly the Empire, has a subtitle (Origins of German Imperialism), that might very well be applied to the fate of the historiography of medieval Germany in the English-speaking world from its considerable prominence up to the eve of the First World War to its low point in the aftermath of the second.

Type
Articles
Information
Central European History , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , March 1995 , pp. 47 - 72
Copyright
Copyright © Conference Group for Central European History of the American Historical Association 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Fuhrmann, Horst, “Ouis Teutonicos constituit iudices nationum? The Trouble with Henry,” Speculum 69, no. 2 (1994): 344–58.Google Scholar

2. Perhaps the best general introduction to the vast modern scholarship is Sheehan, James J., “What is German History? Reflections on the Role of the Nation in German History and Historiography,” Journal of Modern History 53 (1981): 1–23.Google Scholar For the nineteenth century, see Gooch, G. P., History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (1913; reprint Boston, 1959)Google Scholar, which concludes with Waitz, Giesebrecht, and the Prussian School, as well as some Austrian scholarship in the century. An incomplete, but important set of essays on the turn of the century is Hammerstein, Notker, ed., Deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft um 1900 (Stuttgart, 1988)Google Scholar, Nor has this general post-1914 neglect of German, Swiss, and Austrian scholarship on the Middle Ages been an entirely Angloliterate phenomenon. For all of the attention to the theory and practice of historical research and writing in and about Germany in this century, very little attention has been paid, even by German specialists in historiography, to German medieval history. There is remarkably little notice of medieval history in Iggers, Georg G., The German Conception of History (Middletown, CT., 1968)Google Scholar, although Iggers offers the best general introduction to German historical thought in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, or in idem., New Directions in European Historiography (Middletown, 1975).Google Scholar The same may be said of Faulenbach, Bernd, Geschichtswissenschaft in Deutschland (Munich, 1974)Google Scholar, and idem, Ideologie des deutschen Weges (Munich, 1980);Google ScholarJarausch, Konrad, “Illiberalism and Beyond: German History in Search of a Paradigm,” Journal of Modern History 55 (1983); 268–84Google Scholar, and the work cited there. See also Schulin, Ernst, Traditionskritik und Rekonstruktionsversuch. Studien zur Entwicklung von Geschichtswissenschaft und historischem Denken (Göttingen, 1979)Google Scholar, and idem., “Geschichtswissenschaft in unserem Jahrhundert. Probleme und Umrisse einer Geschichte der Historie,” Historische Zeitschrift 245 (1987): 1–30.Google Scholar Schulin, however, has been largely responsible for much of the extant interest in the historiography of medieval Germany. See below, n. 20. There is now a full-length study of a major figure in Wilhelmian historiography. See Chickering, Roger, Karl Lamprecht. A German Academic Life (1856–1915) (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1993)Google Scholar, and the review essay by Iggers, Georg G., “The Historian Banished: Karl Lamprecht in Imperial Germany,” Central European History 27 no. 1 (1994), 87–92.Google Scholar

3. Freed, John, “Reflections on the Medieval German Nobility,” American Historical Review 91 no. 3 (1986): 553–75 at 554.Google Scholar On Freed's point concerning political partisanship, see, for example, Reuter, Timothy, “Otto III and the Historians,” History Today 41 (1991): 21–27Google Scholar, and Burleigh, Michael, Germany Turns Eastwards: A Study of “Ostforschung” in the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1988).Google Scholar On the problem of the German history of social history, see Melton, James van Horn, “From Folk History to Structural History: Otto Brunner (1898–1982) and the Radical-Conservative Roots of German Social History,” in Lehmann, Hartmut and Van Horn Melton, James, eds., Paths of Continuity: Central European Historiography from the 1930s to the 1950s (Cambridge, 1994), 263–92Google Scholar, and Veit-Brause, Irmline, “The Place of Local and Regional History in German and French Historiography: Some General Reflections,” Australian Journal of French Studies 16 (1979): 447–78.Google Scholar Freed himself has been the most productive Anglophone historian of medieval German society, and he has commented extensively on recent social history: “The Origins of the Medieval Nobility: The Problem of the Ministerials,” Viator 7 (1976): 211–41;Google Scholar“The Counts of Falkenstein: Noble Self-Consciousness in Twelfth-Century Germany,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 74, part 6 (1984): 1–70;Google Scholar“Medieval German Social History: Generalizations and Particularism,” Central Europen History 25 no. 1 (1992): 1–26.Google Scholar He spells out some of the points above in greater detail in his review of Werner Rösener's Peasants in the Middle Ages, cited below, n. 50. Freed has most recently published Noble Bondsmen: Ministerial Marriages in the Archidiocese of Salzburg, 1100– 1343 (Ithaca, 1995). The parlous state of German medieval history in the U.S. has been the theme of a number of panels at scholarly conferences in recent years: The Midwest Medieval Conference in 1984: The American Historical Association Annual Meeting of the same year; and the American Historical Association Annual Meeting in 1990. There are about twenty American scholarly reviewers who review German-language scholarship on medieval history, and even fewer in the United Kingdom.Google Scholar

4. The most influential was Wattenbach, Wilhelm, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter (Berlin, 1858), reedited and republished by various authors between 1952 and 1990.Google Scholar See the brief discussion in Reuter, Timothy, Germany in the Early Middle Ages (London and New York, 1991).Google Scholar

5. There is a large literature on the Monumenta. The best short account in English is that of Knowles, David, Great Historical Enterprises. Problems in Monastic History (London, 1963).Google Scholar

6. Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte, ed. Historische Kommission bei der BayerischenAkademieder Wissenschaften, 21 vols. (Leipzig and Berlin, 1862–1954).Google Scholar

7. See Lhotsky, Alfons, “Geschichte des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung 1854 bis 1954,” Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung, Supplement 17 (Vienna, 1954).Google Scholar

8. See Levin, David, History as a Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, and Parkman (Stanford, 1959);Google ScholarHenderson, Harry B. III, Versions of the Past: The Historical Imagination in American Fiction (New York, 1974)Google Scholar, and Cushing Strout, The American Image of the Old World (New York, 1973).Google Scholar The best studies of North American interest in the Middle Ages in this period are those of Guggisberg, Hans Rudolf, Das europäische Mittelalter im amerikanischen Geschichtsdenken des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Bern and Frankfurt am Main, 1973)Google Scholar, and idem.Alte und neue Welt in historischer Perspektive (Bern and Frankfurt am Main, 1973)Google Scholar, as well as Courtenay, William J., “The Virgin and the Dynamo: The Growth of Medieval Studies in North America,” in Medieval Studies in North America: Past, Present, and Future, ed. Sheehan, Francis G and Kleinberg, Christopher (Kalamazoo, 1982), 5–22.Google Scholar On the general phenomenon, see Herbst, Jürgen, The German Historical School in American Scholarship: A Study in the Transfer of Culture (Ithaca, 1965);Google ScholarDiehl, Charles, Americans and German Scholarship, 1770–1870 (New Haven, 1978)Google Scholar, and Schulin, Ernst, “German and American Historiography in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” in An Interrupted Past: German-Speaking Refugee Historians in the United States after 1933, ed. Lehmann, Hartmut and Sheehan, James J (Cambridge, 1991), 8–31. For émigré German historians, see below, pp. 63, 64.Google Scholar On the somewhat lesser German academic influence on the social sciences, see Ross, Dorothy, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, 1991).Google Scholar

9. There have been many discussions of the historical culture of German historiography in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. For a brief summary, see Reuter, , Germany in the Early Middle Ages, 1–17, and the works cited above, n. 2.Google Scholar

10. Part of the success of German scholarship outside German-speaking lands was the result of tours made by other scholars and occasional extensive reports like those of Paul Frédéricq of Belgium. On Frédéricq's 1885 report, “L'Enseignement superieure de l'histoire,” see Lyon, Bryce, Henri Pirenne: A Biographical and Intellectual Study (Ghent, 1974). On the potentiality for transatlantic distortion and misunderstanding, see Iggers, The German Conception of History, 63–65.Google Scholar

11. Stubbs, William, Germany in the Early Middle Ages, 476–1250 and idem, Germany in the Later Middle Ages, 1200–1500, ed. Hassal, Arthur (London, 1908).Google Scholar The German historians cited in Stubbs's work are Waitz, Giesebrecht, Gregorovius, Nitszch, and Ranke. On Waitz as Stubbs's own model for the constitutional history of England, see Fueter, Eduard, Geschichte der neueren Historiographie (Munich and Berlin, 1911), 488.Google Scholar Just missing the century's turn was the work of Fisher, Herbert, The Medieval Empire, 2 vols. (New York, 1898)Google Scholar, an attempt to update the earlier work of James Bryce, deriving also largely from Waitz. On the problem of the medieval Empire as distinct from German history, see now Matthew, D. J. A., “Reflections on the Medieval Roman Empire,” History 77 (1992): 362–90Google Scholar, and Reuter, Timothy, “The Medieval German ‘Sonderweg’? The Empire and Its Rulers in the High Middle Ages,” in Kings and Kingship in the Middle Ages, ed. Duggan, Anne (London, 1993).Google Scholar

12. Pride of chronological place in North America in the twentieth century thus goes to Henderson. See Henderson, Ernest F., A Short History of Germany, vol. I (New York, 1902).Google Scholar Henderson had earlier published Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages (London and New York, 1986)Google Scholar, as he said, “a work compiled with the idea of laying a foundation for the present history.” Shortly afterwards, Edgar Holmes McNeal published his doctoral dissertation, Minores and Mediocres in the Germanic Tribal Laws (Chicago, 1905).Google Scholar On the Europen education of these scholars, see the essays by Morrison, Karl F., “Henry Adams” and Sally Vaughan, “Charles Homer Haskins,” in Medieval Scholarship: Biographical Studies on the Formation of a Discipline, vol. I, History, ed. Damico, Helen and Zavadil, Joseph (New York, 1995), with bibliographies.Google Scholar

13. For a striking case—striking because Pirenne had received much of his training and considerable intellectual sympathy from German scholars—see Lyon, Henri Pirenne, 205–10, 312–19. See also Linehan, Peter, “The Making of the Cambridge Medieval History,” Speculum 57 (1982): 463–94.Google Scholar

14. Thompson, James Westfall, Feudal Germany (Chicago, 1928; reprint New York, 1962);Google ScholarSchmeidler, Bernhard, review of Thompson, Historische Zeitschrift 140 (1929): 591–95 at 592.Google Scholar

15. Barraclough, Geoffrey, Medieval Germany, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1938).Google Scholar Barraclough quoted Schmeidler in vol. I, p. 3, n 5. He went on to observe that “So long as the development of the German people is measured by outworn standards, so long as factors are emphasized which no longer loom as large as they did in the closing years of the nineteenth century, if there is a mistaken formulation of questions and an unrealistic conception of historical potentialities, the significance of German history must remain obscure and interest in its problems be diminished.” Barraclough specifically criticized the work of Reynaud, L., Les origines de l'influence française en Allemagne (Paris, 1913) as failing in this respect, deriving, like Thompson's, from an uncritical use of the work of nineteenth-century German scholars. For the problem of French historians' interest in and use of German scholarship, see below, pp. 57–59.Google Scholar

16. Barraclough, Geoffrey, The Origins of Modern Germany (Oxford, 1946; rev. second ed. Oxford, 1947; reprint 1949), 1952, 1957; paperback ed. New York, 1963).Google Scholar The later part of the work was translated into German by Heinrich Mitteis in 1947, and the medieval chapters proper by Baethgen, Friedrich, as Die mittelalterlichen Grundlagen des modernen Deutschland (Weimar, 1953)Google Scholar, generally favorably reviewed by Bosl, Karl, “Die mittelalterlichen Grundlagen des modernen Deutschland in englischer Sicht,” Historische Zeitschrift 179 (1955): 512–29.Google Scholar The first volumes in Barraclough's series “Studies in Medieval History” edited for Basil Blackwell after Medieval Germany were Tellenbach, Gerd, Church, State and Christian Society at the time of the Investiture Contest, trans. Bennett, R. F. (Oxford, 1938; reprint 1948)Google Scholar, from the German original, Libertas, Kirche und Weltordung im Zeitalter des Investiturstreites, (Leipzig, 1936)Google Scholar, and Kern, Fritz, Kingship and Law in the Middle Ages, trans. Chrimes, S. B. (Oxford, 1940)Google Scholar, originally published as Gottesgnadentum und Widerstandsrecht im früheren Mittelalter. Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Monarchie. The preface to the first edition is dated 1 August 1914. Chrimes also added his translation of an essay on legal history to the Kern monograph. Although they are not part of the old Barraclough series, the English translations of Fichtenau, Heinrich, The Carolingian Empire, trans. Munz, Peter (Oxford, 1957;Google Scholar reprint New York, 1964), Hampe, Karl, Germany Under the Salian and Hohenstaufen Emperors, trans. Bennett, Ralph (1909; reprint Totowa and New Jersey, 1973)Google Scholar, and Mitteis, Heinrich, The State in the Middle Ages: A Comparative Constitutional History of Feudal Europe, trans. Orton, H. F. (New York, 1975) (a work of which Barraclough greatly disapproved).Google Scholar On the English reception—or lack of one—of Mitteis's work, see Hyams, Paul R., “Heinrich Mitteis and the Constitutional History of Medieval England,” in Heinrich Mitteis nach hundert Jahren (1889– 1989), Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse Abhandlungen, ed. Landau, Peter, Nehlsen, Hermann, and Willoweit, Dietmar, new series, 106 (1991) seem to me to be the last manifestations of the spirit of the early volumes of the series (some later volumes turned to English history) and the kind of work that interested Barraclough and such contemporaries of his as Ralph Bennett and H. S. Offler.Google Scholar Barraclough himself, of course, virtually left the field after 1946. Echoing the title of a 1946 essay by Weber, Alfred, Barraclough announced his own changing interests in an essay entitled ‘Abschied von der europäischen Geschichte,’ in Merkur 8 (1954): 401–14Google Scholar, translated with a new title, “Europe in Perspective: New Views on European History,” in Barraclough's History in a Changing World (Oxford, 1955), 168–84.Google Scholar Aside from those works translated by Barraclough or under his sponsorship, one of the most frequently translated historians writing in German, the Austrian Friedrich Heer, is not generally cited in other Germanophone scholarship. See now Gaisbauer, Adolf, Friedrich Heer (1916–1983). Eine Bibliographie (Vienna and Cologne, 1990), esp. the “Biographisches Nachwort,” 420–72.Google Scholar

17. Barraclough, Geoffrey, Introduction to Contemporary History (London, 1964; reprint Harmondsworth, New York, 1967), 9–42.Google Scholar A work with the identical title to Origins is Rapp, Francis, Les origines médiévales de I'Allemagne moderne (Paris, 1989), but, as its subtitle suggests—De Charles IV à Charles Quint (1346—1519)—it has no great relation to the work of Barraclough, but it is rather an interesting contribution to French versions of German medieval history, for which see below, p. 000.Google Scholar

18. Of the others, there is a full-length study only of Hartmann: Günther, Fellner, Ludo Moritz Hartmann und die österreichische Geschichtswissenschaft (Vienna and Salzburg, 1985).Google Scholar

19. On Schramm, see Bak, J. M., “The Medieval Symbology of the State: Percy E. Schramm's Contribution,” Viator 4 (1973): 33–64.Google Scholar Tellenbach's work was first published in German in 1936. Although Kern's Kingship and Law in the Middle Ages had appeared in German in 1914, the war and its aftermath had rendered it virtually unknown outside of Germany, where it appeared in a second edition edited by Rudolf Büchner in 1954 and was reprinted in 1962 under the title, Gottesgnadentum und Widerstandsrecht im frühen Mittelalter. But although Chrimes acknowledged influence of Kern's work on such scholars as Wilhelm Berges and Percy Schramm, his translation omitted Kern's formidable scholarly apparatus—one hundred pages of footnotes and one hundred-fifty pages of appendices, making the monograph look for more like an essay in the history of idcas than the brilliant attempt to rethink the nature of early European constitutional history that it really was. On Kern, see Kern, Liselotte, Fritz Kern 1884–1950. Universal Historiker und Philosoph, Hinweis auf einen unveröffentlichten Nachlass (Bonn, 1980).Google Scholar

20. Stutz had died before the publication of Medieval Germany. Schmeidler had been forcibly retired from Erlangen in 1936. Mayer and Brackmann were in varying degrees enthusiastic supporters of the Nazi regime. There is a large literature on the subject. The most thorough study is that of Schönwälder, Karen, Historiker und Politik. Geschichtswissenschaft im Nazionalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main and New York, 1992).Google Scholar See the review essay by Iggers, Georg G., “Professors in the Third Reich,” Central European History 25 (1992): 445–50.Google Scholar In addition to Schönwäder's work see Werner, Karl Ferdinand, Das NS Geschichtsbild und die deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1967)Google Scholar, and idem., “Die deutsche Historiographie unter Hitler,” in Faulenbach, Geschichtswissenschaft in Deutschland, 86–96;Google ScholarBurleigh, , Germany Turns Eastwards; idem “Albert Brackmann (1871–1952) Ostforscher: The Years of Retirement” Journal of Contemporary History 23 (1988): 573–88;Google ScholarSchreiner, Klaus, “Führertum, Rasse, Reich. Wissenschaft von der Geschichte nach der nationalsozialistischen Machtgreifung,” in Wissenschaft im Dritten Reich, ed. Lundgreen, Peter (Frankfurt, 1985), 163–252Google Scholar, and the works cited in Melton, “From Folk History to Structural History.” On the problems of continuity and discontinuity, see Schreiner, Klaus, “Wissenschaft von der Geschichte des Mittelalters nach 1945. Kontinuitäten und Diskontinuitäten der Mittelalterforschung im geteilten Deutschland,” in Deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (1945–1965), ed. Schulin, ErnstGoogle Scholar, with assistance from Elisabeth Müller-Luckner, Historische Zeitschrift, supplement 10 (Munich, 1989): 87–146.Google Scholar

21. See Lyon, Bryce, Henri Pirenne, 205–10, 312–19.Google Scholar

22. On Pirenne and Sproemberg, see Lyon, Henri Pirenne. On Bloch and Febvre, see Fink, Carole, Marc Bloch: A Life in History (Chicago, 1984), 79–165Google Scholar, and Craig, John E., Scholarship and Nation-Building: The Universities of Strasbourg and Alsatian Society, 1870–1939 (Chicago, 1984).Google Scholar Much of the highly self-conscious reform instinct in early twentieth-century French historiography was directed not only against earlier French historiography, but also against French perceptions of German historical treatments of both earlier German and French history. For the French, of course, the political and cultural concerns were also directed against 1870 as well as the two later world wars. See especially Fink, Marc Bloch, 30–32, 74–57, 96–97, 101–19, 129–31, 193–94, and Werner, Karl Ferdinand, “Marc Bloch et la recherche historique allemand,” in MarcBloch et son oeuvre, ed.Le Goff, J. and Werner, K. F. (Paris, 1986)Google Scholar, reprint in Atsma, Hartmut and Burgiére, André, eds., Marc Bloch aujourd'hui (Paris, 1990), 125–33.Google Scholar Recently, Peter Schöttler has memorialized and edited several essays by Lucie Varga, the young Austrian medieval historian and student of Dopsch who migrated to Paris and played a considerable role in keeping Bloch and Febvre apprised of contemporary German scholarship: Varga, Lucie, Zeitenwende, , ed. Peter, Schöttler (Frankfurt, 1991), French trans. Varga, Lucie, Les autorités invisibles (Paris, 1991). Strasbourg/Strassburg had been exchanged between France and Germany, and the German academic presence in Strassburg had been marked by a distinctive interest in French history, particularly in the cases of Harry Bresslau, Johannes Haller, Robert Holtzmann, and Walter Kienast.Google Scholar

23. Paris, 1951. On the place of Calmette's study, see the extensive discussion of the historigraphical debate on the origins of a France and Germany in Brühl, Carlrichard, Deutschland-Frankreich. Die Geburt Zweier Völker (Cologne and Vienna, 1990), 7–82Google Scholar, and esp. at 78. There is now an abridged French translation: Brühl, Carlrichard, Naissance de deux peuples: Français et Allemands (IXe-XIe siècle), ed. Guyotjeanin, Olivier, trans. Duchet-Suchaux, Gaston (Paris, 1994).Google Scholar

24. Yves Rénouard, “Rapport sur les études d'histoire politique médiévale dans le monde de 1938 à 1950,” IXe Congrès International des Sciences historiques, vol. I, Rapports (Paris, 1950), 541–60Google Scholar, reprint in Rénouard, , Études d'histoire médiévale, vol. 1 (Paris, 1968), 41–60.Google Scholar

25. See “Das Deutsche Historische Institut in Paris,” Francia 1 (1973): 17–21;Google ScholarWerner, Karl Ferdinand, “Die Forschungsbereiche des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Paris, ihre Schwerpunkte und Projekte,” Francia 4 (1976): 722–48Google Scholar, and Krumeich, Gerd, “Das Deutsche Historische Institut in Paris (DHIP),” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 13 (1987): 267–71.Google Scholar Its journal, Francia, with its supplementary volumes (Beihefte), has opened a new line of communication between French and German medieval historians, Its director for many years was Karl Ferdinand Werner, who has written the first volume in the series Histoire de France edited by Favier, Jean: Les origines (avant l'an mit) (Paris, 1984).Google Scholar The medieval chapters of Conze, Werner, The Shaping of the German Nation, trans. Mellon, Neville (New York, 1979), are, as Conze acknowledged, largely derived from Werner's work.Google Scholar

26. Dollinger, Philippe, The German Hansa, trans. and ed. Ault, D. S. and Steinberg, S. H. (London, 1970), from the French original of 1964 and the German translation of 1966. Dollinger seems exceptional here. He had published his L'évolution des classes rurales en Bavière at Strasbourg in 1949.Google Scholar

27. Daedalus 100 (1971): 1–19.Google Scholar

28. On Schramm, see above, n. 19. On Kantorowicz, see Baethgen, Friedrich, “Ernst Kantorowicz 3.5.1895–9.9.1963,” Deutsches Archiv 21 (1965): 1–17;Google ScholarSchramm, Percy Ernst, “Nachruf von Ernst Kantorowicz,” Erasmus 18 (1966): 449–56;Google ScholarFleckenstein, Josef, “Ernst Kantorowicz sum Gadächtnis,” Frankfurter Universitätsreden 3 (1964): 11–27Google Scholar, reprint in Fleckenstein, , Ordnungen und formende Kräfte des Mittelalters. Ausgewählte Beiträge (Göttingen, 1989), 508–21;Google ScholarAbulafia, David, “Kantorowicz and Frederick II,” History 62 (1977): 193–210;Google ScholarMalkiel, Yakov, “Ernst H. Kantorowicz,” in Four Modern Humanists, ed. Arthur, R.Evans (Princeton, 1970), 146–219;Google ScholarGiesey, Ralph E., “Ernst H. Kantorowicz: Scholarly Triumphs and Academic Travails in Weimar Germany,” Publications of the Leo Baeck Institute, Yearbook 30 (1985): 191–202;Google ScholarGrünewald, Eckhart, Ernst Kantorowicz und Stefan George (Wiesbaden, 1982);Google ScholarBoureau, Alain, Histoires d'un historien. Kantorowicz (Paris, 1990)Google Scholar, an interesting study from a French perspective; Lerner, Robert E., “Ernst Kantorowicz and Theodor E. Mommsen,” in An Interrupted Past, ed. Lehmann, and Sheehan, , 188–205;Google ScholarTumult. Schriften zur Verkehrswissenschaft, no. 16 (1994), a number entitled Ernst Hartwig Kantorowicz Geschichtsschreiber, containing several essays by and about Kantorowicz. Most recently, see Landauer, Carl, “Ernst Kantorowicz and the Sacrilization of the Past,” Central European History 27 (1994): 1–25.Google Scholar The results of two conferences on the work of Kantorowicz held in Frankfurt in 1993 and Princeton in 1994 will be published in Germany in 1995. The chapter on Kantorowicz and Schramm in Cantor, Norman, Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century (New York, 1991), 79–117, should be read with considerable skepticism and dismay.Google Scholar

29. Cuvillier, Jean-Pierre, L'Allemagne médiévale. Naissance d'un état (VIIIe–XIIIe siècles) (Paris, 1979);Google ScholarRapp, Francis.Les origines médiévales de l'Allemagne moderne (cited above, n. 17).Google Scholar An eloquent example of this French interest is the article by Magnou-Nortier, Elisabeth, “Un grand historien: Walter Schlesinger,” Francia 16 (1989): 155–67.Google Scholar

30. Norman Cantor, Inventing the Middle Ages is a highly impressionistic, largely autobiographical, and rarely reliable series of studies. Some of Cantor's interests in this direction were laid Out in an article in 1968, “Medieval Historiography as Modern Political and Social Thought,” Journal of Contemporary History 3 (1968): 55–73. Cantor's views could only have been confirmed by the mediocre essay that followed his in the same issue of the Journal, August Nitschke, “German Politics and Medieval History,” 75–92.Google Scholar

31. Bloch, Marc, “A Contribution Towards a Comparative History of European Societies,” in idem., Land and Work in Mediaeval Europe: Selected Papers by Marc Bloch, trans. Anderson, J. E. (New York, 1969), 44–81.Google Scholar

32. Thrupp, Sylvia, ed., Early Medieval Society (New York, 1967).Google Scholar

33. Rörig, Fritz, The Medieval Town (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967).Google Scholar

34. Cheyette, Frederic L., Lordship and Community in Medieval Europe (New York, 1968).Google Scholar

35. Leyser, Karl, “England and the Empire in the Early Twelfth Century,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, fifth series, 10 (1960): 61–83;Google Scholar reprint in Leyser, Karl, Medieval Germany and Its Neighbours, 900–1250 (London, 1982).Google Scholar On Leyser, see the reminiscence by Harriss, G. L. and the bibliography in Reuter, Timothy, ed., Warriors and Churchmen in the High Middle Ages: Essays Presented to Karl Leyser (London and Rio Grande, 1992).Google Scholar Leyser's subsequent work consisted chiefly of essays and detailed reviews. See Leyser, Karl, Rule and Conflict in an Early Medieval Society; Ottonian Saxony (Bloomington and London, 1975);Google ScholarReuter, Timothy, ed., Communications and Power in Medieval Europe; The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries (London, 1994);Google Scholaridem, The Gregorian Revolution and Beyond (London, 1994).Google Scholar

36. See, e.g., Airlie, Stuart, “After Empire—Recent Work on the Emergence of PostCarolingian Kingdoms,” Early Medieval Europe 2 (1993): 133–61Google Scholar, and Godman, Peter and Collins, Roger, eds., Charlemagne's Heir: New Perspectives on Louis the Pious (814–840) (Oxford, 1990)Google Scholar, with chapters by different scholars in German, French, and English. Like the Investiture Conflict and the Crusades (discussed immediately below), the Carolingian period has also been an area in which German scholarship has played a wider general role because of a common interest that is not German-specific. Here, too, the work of a German scholar, the émigré Wilhelm Levison, has played an important role: England and the Continent in the Eighth Century (Oxford, 1946).Google Scholar See, most recently, Sullivan, Richard E., “The Carolingian Age: Reflections on Its Place in the History of the Middle Ages,” Speculum 64 (1989): 267–306.Google Scholar Two recent translations of the work of Germany's leading paleographer, the late Bernhard Bischoff, have contributed greatly to the Anglolexic presence of one of the great strengths of German scholarship: Bischoff, Bernhard, Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, trans. Cróin ín, D´ibhi Ó. and Ganz, David (Cambridge, 1990);Google Scholaridem, Manuscripts and Libraries in the Age of Charlemagne, trans. Gorman, Michael (Cambridge, 1994).Google Scholar Early medieval archaeology has also become something of an international field with substantial German contributions. See most recently Fehring, Günther P., The Archaeology of Medieval Germany: An Introduction, trans. Samson, Ross (London, 1992)Google Scholar, and Jahnkuhn, Herbert, “Umrisse einer Archäologie des Mittelalters,” Zeitschrift für Archäologie des Mittelalters 1 (173): 9–19. This journal, with Germania, as well as occasional studies in Frühmittelalterliche Studien, is the principal source of scholarship for medieval archaeology in Germany.Google Scholar

37. Du Boulay, F. R. H., Germany in the Later Middle Ages (New York, 1983).Google Scholar

38. This interest goes back at least as far as Emerton. It was stimulated by several of the essays in Medieval Germany and particularly by the studies of Tellenbach and Kern that followed them. One of the first results of this interest in the United States was the volume of translated and annotated texts, Mommsen, T. E. and Karl, F. Morrison, eds., Imperial Lives and Letters of the Eleventh Century (New York, 1962).Google Scholar Mommsen was an émigré German historian of great talent who taught at Cornell and Princeton. See Lerner, “Ernst Kantorowicz and Theodor E. Mommsen,” above, n. 28., and below, n. 43. There are brief sketches of Kantorowicz, , Mommsen, , and Hampe, Karl in Felix Gilbert, A European Past: Memoirs 1905–1945 (New York, 1988).Google Scholar Mommsen appears as a kind of leitmotif inCantor, Inventing the Middle Ages. Morrison, perhaps the American medieval historian most thoroughly imbued with some of the most important aspects of German historical method, has himself surveyed American medieval historiography: Morrison, Karl F., “Fragmentation and Unity in ‘American Medievalism,’” in Kammen, Michael, ed., The Past Before Us (Ithaca and London, 1980). 49–77.Google Scholar Most recently, see Blumenthal, Uta-Renate, Der Investiturstreit (Stuttgart, 1982)Google Scholar, Eng. trans. by the author, The Investiture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century (Philadelphia, 1988).Google Scholar

39. Mayer, Hans Eberhard, The Crusades, trans. Gillingham, John (Oxford, 1972);Google ScholarErdmann, Carl, The Origin of the Idea of Crusade, trans. Baldwin, Marshall W. and Goffart, Walter (Princeton, 1977).Google Scholar

40. On Ullmann, see Tierney, Brian and Linehan, Peter, eds., Authority and Power: Studies on Medieval Law and Government Presented to Walter Ullmann on his Seventieth Birthday (Cambridge, 1980).Google Scholar On Tierney, see Sweeney, James Ross and Chodorow, Stanley, Popes, Teachers, and Canon Law in the Middle Ages (Ithaca, London, 1989);Google Scholar on Kuttner, see Pennington, Kenneth, “Stephan Kuttner,” in Der Einfluss deutscher Emigranten auf die Rechtsentwicklung in den USA und in Deutschland, ed., Lutter, Marcus, stiefel, Ernst C., and Hoeflich, Michael H. (Tübingen, 1993), 361–64.Google ScholarPennington, Kenneth and Hartmann, Wilfried, eds., A History of Medieval Canon Law (Washington, D.C., forthcoming).Google Scholar An important example of American scholarship on German church history is Duggan, Lawrence G, Bishop and Chapter: The Governance of the Bishopric of Speyer to 1552 (New Brunswick, 1978). On émigré historians, see below, p. 000.Google Scholar

41. Strauss, Gerald, Manifestations of Discontent in Germany on the Eve of the Reformation (Bloomington and London, 1971);Google ScholarPre-Reformation Germany (New York, 1972).Google Scholar For Strauss, see Fix, Andrew C and Karant-Nunn, Susan C., eds., Germania illustrata: Essays on Early Modern Germany Presented to Gerald Strauss (Kirksville, Missouri, 1992), with a memoir, “Gerald Strauss. Historian,” xix–xxiii.Google Scholar Of the work of the leading German historian of the later Middle Ages, Moraw, Peter, there exists in English a translation of his article, “The Court of the German King and Emperor at the End of the Middle Ages,” in Princes, Patronage, and the Nobility: The Court at the Beginning of the Modern Age, ed. Asch, Ronald G. and Birke, Adolf M. (New York, 1991)Google Scholar, Moraw's important survey, Von offener Vefassung zu gestalteter Verdichtung: Das Deutsche Reich im späten Mittelalter 1250 bis 1490 (Berlin, 1985), the third volume of the series Propyläen Weltgeschichte Deutschlands, is one of the works of recent German historical scholarship badly in need of English translation. For others, see below, n. 55.Google Scholar

42. The consequences of these limitations have also been felt in the academic job market, in which positions in Central European medieval history are relatively few, and have been for some years. At least two American scholars, Linda Fowler-Magerl and Stuart Jenks, have made academic careers in Germany.

43. There is a large literature, much of it conveniently referenced in Lehmann, and Sheehan, , eds., An Interrupted Past. See also the work cited above, n. 40.Google Scholar

44. On Kantorowicz, see above, n. 28; on Ladner, see Van Engen, John, “Images and Ideas: The Achievements of Gerhart Burian Ladner,” Viator 20 (1989): 85–115;Google Scholar on Mommsen, see Lerner, , “Ernst Kantorowicz and Theodor E. Mommsen,” Mommsen, Theodor E., Medieval and Renaissance Studies, ed. Eugene, F. Rice (Ithaca, 1959; reprint Westport, CO 1982).Google ScholarKisch's, GuidoThe Jews in Medieval Germany, 2nd edition (New York, 1970)Google Scholar, represented a field in which there had been extensive German research, but none worth speaking of by Germans in the middle years of this century. recent German research, however, has returned to this topic: Graus, Frantīsek, Pest—Geissler—Judenmorde. Das 14, Jahrhundert als Krisenzeit (Göttingen, 1987);Google ScholarHaverkamp, Alfred, ed., Zur Geschichte der Juden im Deutschland des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit (Stuttgart. 1981);Google ScholarHerde, Peter, “Gestaltung und Krisis. Juden und Nichtjuden in Deutschland vom Mittelalter bis zur Neuzeit,” in Neunhundert Jahre Geschichte der Juden in Hessen, ed. Heinemann, Christiane (Wiesbaden, 1983), 1–40.Google Scholar

45. See Van Engen, cited above, n. 44, and below, n. 61; on Morrison, see the “Lobrede” by Cantor, Inventing the Middle Ages, 424, and above, n. 38; Benson, Robert L., “Political Renovatio: Two Models from Roman Antiquity,” in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, ed. Benson, R. L. and Constable, Giles (Cambridge, Mass., 1982), 299–323.Google Scholar This volume also presented the work of the German historians Peter Classen and Knut Wolfgang Nörr. See also Pennington, Kenneth and Somerville, Robert, eds., Law, Church and Society: Essays in Honor of Stephan Kuttner (Philadelphia, 1977).Google Scholar Somerville was the teacher of Uta-Renate Blumenthal, and Benson has produced a student whose work reflects a classic tradition of German historical scholarship: Bernhardt, John W., Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, c. 936–1075 (Cambridge, 1993).Google Scholar

46. Hill, Boyd, The Rise of the First Reich (New York, 1969)Google Scholar; idem, Medieval Monarchy in Action: The German Empire from Henry I to Henry IV (London, New York, 1972). Hill's useful translations supplement those in Mommsen and Morrison, Imperial Lives and Letters of the Eleventh Century. Hill's 1969 title was unfortunate because it echoed a thesis particularly prominent among many German historians and most German political figures in the NSDAP.Google Scholar

47. Gillingham, John, The Kingdom of Germany in the High Middle Ages (London, 1971).Google Scholar Gillingham's most recent revisionist study is “Elective Kingship and the Unity of Medieval Germany,” German History 9 (1991): 124–35.Google Scholar

48. Reuter, Timothy, ed. and trans., The Medieval Nobility: Studies on the Ruling Classes of France and Germany From the Sixth to the Twelfth Century (Amsterdam and New York, 1978).Google Scholar Reuter included essays by Karl Schmid, Karl Hauck, Franz Irsigler, Karl Ferdinand Werner, Gerd Tellenbach, Karl Bosl, and Johanna Maria van Winter. Aside from the work of Cheyette and Reuter, the approach that consists of bringing German evidence together with evidence from other parts of Europe to bear on topical problems in comparative history is well-illustrated in Genicot, Leopold, Rural Communities in the Medieval West (Baltimore, 1990)Google Scholar, and Reynolds, Susan, Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe (Oxford, 1984).Google Scholar Another volume that reflects the collaborative thematic work of both German and non-German historians is Bulst, Neithard and Genet, Jean-Philippe, eds., Medieval Lives and the Historian, (Kalamazoo, 1986).Google Scholar

49. As examples of the former, Wolfram, Herwig, “The Shaping of the Early Medieval Kingdom,” Viator 1 (1970): 1–20Google Scholar, and “The Shaping of the Early Medieval Principality as a Type of Non-Royal Rulership,” Viator 2 (1971): 33–51.Google Scholar Of the latter, Staab, Franz, “A Reconsideration of the Ancestry of Modern Political Liberty: The Problem of the So-Called ‘King's Freemen’ (Königsfreie),” Viator 11 (1980): 51–69.Google Scholar Wolfram, the successor of Heinrich Fichtenau at the University of Vienna, has also written a perceptive European analysis of medieval studies in the U.S.: Herwig Wolfram “Medieval Studies in America and American Medievalism,” trans. Hill, Boyd H. Jr., Frühmittelalterliche Studien 11 (1977): 396–408.Google Scholar trans. Boyd H. Hill, Jr., also in Journal of the Rocky Mountain Medieval and Renaissance Association 2 (1981): 1–14. I am grateful to Boyd Hill forthis reference and other advice and interest.Google Scholar

50. Jordan, Karl, Henry the Lion, trans. Falla, P. S. (Oxford and New York, 1986);Google ScholarFichtenau, Heinrich, Living in the Tenth Century: Mentalities and Social Orders, trans. Geary, Patrick (Chicago, 1991);Google ScholarBrunner, Otto, “Land” and Lordship, trans. Kaminsky, Howard and James, Van Horn Melton (Philadelphia, 1992);Google ScholarBorst, Arno, The Ordering of Time: From the Ancient Computus to the Modern Computer, trans. Winnard, Andrew (Chicago, 1994);Google ScholarRösener, Werner, Peasants in the Middle Ages (Urbana and Champaign, 1992);Google Scholar but see Freed's, John review of Rösener in Central European History 26 (1993): 115–17);Google ScholarGoetz, Hans-Werner, Life in the Middle Ages from the Seventh to the Thirteenth Century, ed. Rowan, Steven, trans. Wimmer, Albert (Notre Dame, 1993).Google Scholar The Grundmann translation is forthcoming. There is also a collection of Arno Borst's essays: Medieval Worlds: Barbarians, Heretics, and Artists in the Middle Ages, trans. Hansen, Eric (Chicago, 1992), with an interesting essay, “My Life,” 244–50.Google Scholar

51. Interestingly, the earlier English publication of the work of Gerhard, Dietrich, Old Europe: A Study of Continuity, 1000–1800 (New York, 1981) established an Angloliterate introduction to ideas that were very similar to those of Brunner, although Gerhard was a student of Friedrich Meinecke and an émigré himself.Google ScholarSee Melton, Edgar, “Comment: Hermann Aubin,” in Lehmann and Melton, Paths of Continuity, 251–61 at 253, n. 11.Google Scholar

52. Sullivan, above, n. 36; Freed, above, n. 3; Bowlus, Charles W., “The Early Kaiserreich in Recent German Historiography,” Central European History 23 no. 4 (1990): 349–67.Google Scholar See also Bowlus, Charles W., Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube (Philadelphia, 1995).Google Scholar Review articles can also sometimes demonstrate a lack of impact of scholarship like much of that described above. Wood, Charles T., “The Return of Medieval Politics,” American Historical Review 94 (1989): 391–404, pays little attention to German scholarship.Google Scholar

53. Fried, Johannes, “Deutsche Geschichte im früheren und hohen Mittelalter. Bemerkungen zu einigen neuen Gesamtdarstellungen,” Historische Zeitschrift 245 (1987): 625–59, lists at least five of these since 1973. The first of these was the Deutsche Geschichte, edited by Joachim Leuschner, all three of whose medieval volumes have been translated into English.Google Scholar

54. Fleckenstein, Joseph, Early Medieval Germany, trans. , Smith (Amsterdam, 1978);Google ScholarFuhrmann, Horst, Germany in the High Middle Ages c. 1050–1200, trans. Renter, Timothy (Cambridge, 1986);Google ScholarLeuschner, Joachim, Germany in the Late Middle Ages, trans. MacCormack, Sabine (Amsterdam, 1980).Google Scholar See the perceptive review article by Timothy Reuter on the first and last of these in English translation and the Fuhrmann book in German, “A New History of Medieval Germany,” History 66 (1981): 440–44.Google Scholar

55. Haverkamp, Alfred, Medieval Germany 1056–1273, trans. Braun, Helga and Mortimer, Richard (Oxford, 1988).Google Scholar Haverkamp's volume, like that of Fuhrmann (although the end-dates in each are different—and significant), was part of another series, the Neue Deutsche Geschichte. At least one of these projects, Martin Vogt, ed., Deutsche Geschichte von den Anfängen bis zur Wiedervereinigung, was reedited in order to accommodate the Wiedervereinigung of 1989 The first edition appeared in 1987 with an excellent chapter on medieval Germany by Hannah Vollrath, the second in 1991 with the new title. Among individual volumes in the new series, a number should certainly be translated into English. Among these are the study of Peter Moraw, cited above, n. 41, and the volumes that chronologically precede it in the Propyläen Geschichte Deutschlands, Fried, Johannes, Der Weg in die Geschichte. Die Ursprünge Deutschlands his 1024 (Berlin, 1994)Google Scholar, and Keller, Hagen, Zwischen regionaler Begrenzung und universalem Horizont. Deutschland im Imperium der Salier und Staufer 1024–1250 (Berlin, 1986).Google Scholar Fried's work begins and concludes with astute discussions of what “German” was in the period. English translations are underway of Weinfürter, Stefan, Herrschaft und Reich der Salier. Grundlinien und Umbruchzeit (Sigmaringen, 1992), and Brühl, Deutschland-Frankreich.Google Scholar

56. Reuter, Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056, the first volume of the three- volume series Longman History of Germany. Reuter's first chapter, 6–17, offers a very useful perspective on many of the topics of this essay. A good example of the new Carolingian scholarship is McKitterick, Rosamond, The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians 751–987 (London and New York, 1983). As McKitterick points out (p. 196, n. 12), her narrative tilt toward West Francia in this survey was deliberate, anticipating the Reuter volume. See also above, no. 36.Google Scholar

57. Freed, “Medieval German Social History”: Freed has argued that the predominance of detailed Forschung in German historical scholarship has led to syntheses (Darstellung) having been produced either by non-historians or by non-German historians.

58. Another is the appearance of familiarity with German scholarship by non-specialists. For instance, Mundy, John, Europe in the High Middle Ages, 1150–1309 (New York, 1973), 26 n.: “I am surprised to recognize my debt to a largely German cast of scholars … In the study of medieval history there is no doubt that the German contribution to the relationship of ideas to institutions has been greater than that of any other people.” Another instance is the case of the author of this essay.Google Scholar

59. See Bak, J. M., ed., Coronations: Medieval and Early Modern Monarchic Ritual (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1990). Bak's volume contains an essay by Elze, Reinhard, one of the most impressive successors to some of Schramm's interest: “The Ordo for the Coronation of Roger II of Sicily: An Example of Dating from Internal Evidence,” 165–78.Google Scholar

60. See, e.g., Fried, Johannes, Otto III. und Boleslaw Chrobry. Das Widmungsbild des Aachener Evangeliars, der “Akt von Gnesen” und das frühe polnische und ungarische Königtum (Stuttgart, 1989).Google Scholar Another German contribution that should have a wide impact is that of Begriffsgeschicte, the history of concepts. See Richter, Melvin, “Conceptual History (Begriffsgeschichte) and Political Theory,” Political Theory 14 (1986): 604–37Google Scholar, and idem, “Begriffsgeschichte and the History of Ideas,” Journal of the History of Ideas 48 (1987): 247–63;Google ScholarKoselleck, Reinhard, “Begriffsgeschichte and Social History,” trans. Tribe, Keith, Economy and Society 11 (1982): 409–27.Google Scholar

61. Grundmann, Herbert, Religiöse Bewegungen im Mittelalter, 2nd edition (Hildesheim, 1961).Google Scholar Grundmann's classic work is soon to appear in an English translation by Steven Rowan from the Notre Dame University Press. See also Van Engen, John, “The Christian Middle Ages as an Historiographical Problem,” American Historical Review 91 (1986): 519–52.Google Scholar American examples of Grundmann's influence are Lerner, Robert E., The Heresy of the Free Spirit in the Later Middle Ages (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1972; reprint Notre Dame, 1992);Google ScholarFreed, John, The Friars and German Society in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1977)Google Scholar, and Kieckhefer, Richard, European Witch Trials: Their Foundations in Learnedand Popular Culture (Berkeley, 1976);Google ScholaridemRepression of Heresy in Medieval Germany (Philadelphia, 1979);Google Scholaridem“The Specific Rationality of Medieval Magic,” American Historical Review 99 (1994): 813–36.Google Scholar

62. See Bernhardt, above, n. 45, On the impact of the hagiographical work of Frantisek Graus and Friedrich Prinz, see Fouracre, Paul, “Merovingian History and Merovingian Hagiography,” Past & Present 127 (1990): 3–38.Google Scholar

63. See Hoffmann, Richard C., Land, Liberties, and Lordship in a Late Medieval Countryside: Agrarian Structures and Change in the Duchy of Wroclaw (Philadelphia, 1989);Google ScholarArnold, Benjamin, Count and Bishop in Medieval Germany: A Study of Regional Power, 1100–1350 (Philadelphia, 1991), and the Kaminsky-Melton translation of Otto Brunner, cited above. Some of these interests are reflected in the numbers of the journal Medieval Prosopography. A recently translated example of Alltagsgeschichte is that of Hans-Werner Goetz's Life in the Middle Ages, cited above, n. 50. German work in social history has been more regularly reviewed in American journals.Google Scholar See, for example, the review by Cheyette, Fredric in Speculum 55 (1980): 107–9.Google Scholar An example of urban history is Strait, Paul, Cologne in the Twelfth Century (Gainesville, 1974).Google Scholar

64. Howell, Martha C., Women, Production, and Patriarchy in Late Medieval Cities (Chicago, 1986);Google Scholaridem, with the collaboration of Suzanne Wemple and Kaiser, Denise, “A Documented Presence: Medieval Women in Germanic Historiography,” Women in Medieval History and Historiography, ed. Stuard, Susan Mosher (Philadelphia, 1987)Google Scholar 110–31; 171–84, tells the historiographical story well. Since Howell published this essay a useful bibliography has appearedcitation: Affeldt, Werner, Nolte, Cordula, Reiter, Sabine, Vorwerk, Ursula, eds., Frauen im Mittelalter. Eine ausgewählte, kommentierte Bibliographie (Frankfurt, Bern, New York, Paris, 1990).Google Scholar On women rulers, most recently Jäschke, Kurt-Ulrich, Notwendige Gefährtinnen: Königinnen der Salierzeit als Herscherinnen und Ehefrauen im römisch-deutschen Reich des 11. und beginnenden 12. Jahrhunderts (Saarbrücken and Scheidt, 1991).Google Scholar There is a recent review article: Röckelein, H., “Historische Frauenforschung. Ein Literaturbericht zur Geschichte des Mittelalters,” Historische Zeitschrift 255 (1992): 377–409.Google Scholar

65. Newman, Barbara, Sister of Wisdom: St. Hildegard's Theology of the Feminine (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1987);Google ScholarClark, Anne L., Elisabeth of Schönau: A Twelfth-Century Visionary (Philadelphia, 1992);Google ScholarTobin, Frank, Meister Eckhart: Thought and Language (Philadelphia, 1986).Google Scholar

66. The classic challenge is Brown, Elizabeth A. R., “The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe,” American Historical Review 79 (1974): 1063–88.Google Scholar