The methods of Bailey and of Jolly and Seber were used to provide maximum likelihood estimates of population parameters for Jackson’s classical mark–recapture experiments on males of the tsetse fly Glossina m. morsitans Westwood. These were compared with Jolly-Seber (J-S) estimates for the same fly from more recent work on Antelope Island, Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. The Bailey estimates of birth and death rates and total population size had markedly lower variances than Jackson’s originals. Both sets of estimates provided moving averages over 6-week periods, whereas the Jolly-Seber analysis provided independent weekly estimates and their variance is consequently higher. Saturation deficit and maximum temperature (Tmax) accounted for 11 and 16% respectively of the variance in independent 4-week means of the weekly J-S survival probabilities. Analysis of covariance, carried out on a joint data set of smoothed J-S estimates of the survival probability in Tanzania and Zimbabwe, showed a significant effect of Tmax on survival. When this effect was removed, the survival probability in the Tanzania studies was found to be 8% lower than on Antelope Island. The two effects accounted for 50% of the variance in the joint data. When saturation deficit was substituted for Tmax, regression only accounted for 35% of the variance. If saturation deficit is important in determining tsetse survival, it must act on stages other than the post-teneral adult. Given the continuous increase in mortality, even at moderate temperatures, it is hard to envisage a direct effect of Tmax. There may be an indirect effect, however, via the number of hunger-related deaths resulting from the increase in the feeding rate with increasing temperature.

Desiccation resistance was examined in pre-diapause, diapause and post-diapause larvae of the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clemens), in terms of passive water evaporation under three desiccation conditions: freeze-drying, desiccant-drying at 2°C and desiccant-drying 18°C. Diapausing second instar larvae and post-diapause non-feeding second instar larvae showed strongest desiccation resistance: a significant amount of water was retained after repeated drying under desiccating conditions, while pre-diapause first instar larvae and post-diapause feeding instar larvae lost almost all their water content after one or two drying cycles. A hibernaculum covering had no effect on water evaporation. While dead larvae tended to lose significantly more water than their living counterparts, particularly among first instar larvae, such an impact much weaker among diapausing second instar larvae. Desiccation resistance was lost when post-diapause second instar larvae were allowed access to water while the level of desiccation resistance was maintained or enhanced when the larvae did not have access to water. These results are discussed the context of overwintering ecology of the species and possible mechanisms for the desiccation resistance are also discussed.

Callosobruchus subinnotatus (Pic) is the major insect pest of stored bambara groundnuts, Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdcourt, in sub-Saharan West Africa, but little is currently known about its biology or how it may be controlled. A series of laboratory studies was performed to investigate the bionomics of and differences between two apparently different morphs of adult of each sex of this species, here termed ‘active’ and ‘normal’. Major differences in their morphology, physiology and behaviour were identified and are described in detail for the first time. They provide clear evidence of the existence of an adult polymorphism among populations of this species, which is comparable in certain respects to that previously described for C. maculatus (Fabricius) and C. chinensis Linnaeus. Adults can be separated into the correct morph based on characteristic differences in elytral and pygidial colour and pattern. ‘Normal’ adults are characterized by having high fecundity, short adult life and are relatively sedentary while ‘active’ adults exhibit reproductive diapause (suspension of reproductive activity), are long lived, and show (at least in females) increased dispersal tendencies. These characteristics suggest adaptation of the ‘active’and ‘normal’ morphs respectively to the different environments of field and seed stores, and the significance of the polymorphism in the life history of C. subinnotatus is discussed in this context. The design of any effective control regime for this bruchid needs to take account of and could potentially be based upon the existence of polymorphism in C. subinnotatus.

Adult and larval identification of Diabrotica can be difficult. Some adult identifications require considerable taxonomic experience while larvae of many Diabroticaspecies are morphologically indistinguishable. This study was conducted to determine whether 12 pest and non-pest Diabrotica species could be separated using polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR–RFLP). A 1308 bp portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (COI) was amplified using PCR and digested using several restriction endonucleases. Double digests of COI amplicons with AluI and MspI resolved on polyacrylamide gels revealed several diagnostic inter- and intraspecific polymorphisms. A key to the 12 species was constructed using the PCR–RFLP patterns.

Changes in the distribution of two riverine tsetse flies, Glossina tachinoides Westwood and Glossina palpalis gambiensis Vanderplank are described in an agro-pastoral area of Burkina Faso subject to increasing human population pressure and land use change. Two similar entomological surveys (one trap every 100 m, 120 km of river) were conducted in 1981 and 1996. Changes in tsetse distribution were compared to land use changes through high resolution remote sensing imagery (LANDSAT, SPOT). There was a close relationship between proximity of crops relative to riverine forest and the density of Glossina. Where fields encroached on riverine vegetation, tsetse populations declined. Where the geomorphological structure was not well suited to agricultural activity, riverine vegetation and tsetse fly populations were relatively unaffected, even with intense agricultural activity nearby. In contrast, increased human activity and higher cattle densities in the surrounding savannah areas were associated with increased tsetse numbers. The results demonstrated a wide diversity of tsetse distribution and habitat within a few kilometres in an agro-pastoral landscape in West Africa.

The genotypic interaction between wheat resistance genes H3, H6, H7H8, H9 and virulence genes vH3, vH6, vH7vH8, vH9 of Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), was studied in a growth chamber. Results showed plants homozygous and heterozygous for the H3 gene expressed a high level of resistance against homozygous avirulent and heterozygous larvae carrying the vH3 virulence allele. The H7H8 genes were highly effective in the homozygous condition, but displayed a level of resistance in the heterozygous condition. The H6 and H9 genes showed different levels of resistance against the reciprocal heterozygous larvae (vH6avH6a versus vH6avH6a and vH9avH9avH9avH9a). Adults reared from vH6avH6a and vH9avH9a larvae were all males, consistent with the vH6 and vH9 X-linkage. Plants homozygous for H3, H6, H7H8, and H9 allowed for greater larval survival of heterozygous larvae, which suggests that avirulence to these resistance genes is incompletely dominant. Greater survival of homozygous avirulent larvae on heterozygous plants (H3h3, H6h6, H7h7H8h8, H9h9) suggests incomplete dominance of these wheat genes. Survival of heterozygous along with homozygous virulent larvae would reduce selection pressure for virulence in Hessian fly populations infesting fields of resistant wheat cultivars. This would be expected to slow the in frequency of virulence alleles that often results from deployment of resistant cultivars.

Six species of insects and a rust fungus have been successfully established for biocontrol of the weed Parthenium hysterophorus L. in Queensland, Australia. Effectiveness of biocontrol insects was evaluated at two properties in Queensland during 1996–97 based on an exclusion experiment using insecticides. Parthenium-infested plots with and without biocontrol insects were sampled at monthly intervals and the impact of biocontrol insects on parthenium at individual plant and whole population levels monitored. Biocontrol insects were more effective at Mt Panorama (central Queensland) than at Plain Creek (north Queensland). At Mt Panorama, the leaf-feeding beetle Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister caused 96% defoliation and the stem-galling moth Epiblema strenuana Walker affected 100% of the plants, resulting in reductions of 90% in weed density, 40% in plant height, and 82% in flower production. Exclusion of biocontrol insects resulted in a 52% increase in seedling emergence and a seven-fold increase in the soil seed bank in the following season. At Plain Creek, E. strenuana was the only prominent agent. It affected 92% of the plants and prevented 32% of plants from producing any flowers, reduced plant height by 40% and flower production by 49%, but did not reduce the plant biomass, weed density or soil seed bank. However, exclusion of biocontrol insects resulted in an eight-fold increase in the soil seed bank in the following season.

The international trade in live reptiles has grown dramatically in the last decade. Since many of these reptiles are infested with ticks, the number of ticks introduced to new exotic locations has also increased. This is causing concern in importing countries such as the United States because some of the reptilian ticks are known to be vectors of diseases of veterinary and economic importance, such as heartwater. Rational measures to control these tick species and to eradicate new introductions have been slow to develop due in part to the scattered and often obscure sources of available data on the exotic ticks. This review is an attempt to collate information on the geographical distribution, host range, life cycle and associations with diseases for four Amblyomma species, A. marmoreum Koch, A. nuttalli Dönitz, A. sabanerae Stoll and A. sparsum Neumann, and for four Aponommaspecies, A. exornatum (Koch), A. flavomaculatum (Lucas), A. latum(Koch) and A. varanensis (Supino), that have recently been introduced into Florida, USA on imported reptiles.

An incomplete ring of electric nets was evaluated as a means of estimating trap efficiency for Glossina spp. This methodology assumes flies approach the trap directly, and then enter, or leave directly in random directions. These results showed that the ratio of the number of flies intercepted on the outside of the electric nets to the number on the inside was lower than predicted by this single-approach behavioural model. Moreover, an incomplete ring of nets around a trap reduced trap catch more than the model predicted. These inconsistencies were greater early in the day, and greater for females than for males. It is suggested that flies may make several approaches to a trap before entering or departing. This mixes arriving and departing flies on each side of the electric nets. Use of a complete ring of nets around a trap to estimate trap efficiency entails fewer behavioural assumptions. Catches at a complete ring around a trap were compared to catches in a trap without nets, replicated in a cross-over design. The efficiency of an odour baited NG2G trap was estimated to be 58% for males and 37% for females. Biconical traps were much less efficient. Both trap types were less efficient in the early morning, suggesting entry response is temperature dependent. The NG2G trap was more efficient for non-teneral nulliparous females than for other ages. For both trap types there was little difference between mean fat content of approaching and trapped males, but the mean fat content of trapped females was lower than that of approaching females.

A laboratory study of aspects of parasitoid host acceptance, suitability and physiological regulation in natural and novel host species was carried out to investigate the degree of variability encountered with different hosts and to determine the value of such observations in host range determination. The parasitoid Microctonus aethiopoides Loan was exposed to a natural host, Sitona discoideus Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and three novel hosts, the New Zealand native Nicaeana cervinaBroun, the introduced weed biological control agent Rhinocyllus conicus (Froehlich), and a congeneric pest species, Sitona lepidus Gyllenhal (all Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Per cent parasitism of these species was 54%, 43%, 39% and 0%, respectively. The results indicated that for both S. discoideus and R. conicus more males than females were parasitized (69% cf. 45%, and 49% cf. 32% respectively) but host size was not a significant factor. Overall, superparasitism was recorded in about 29% of parasitized weevils and there was evidence that host discrimination to avoid superparasitism occurred in the natural host. Conversely, superparasitism occurred more frequently than would be expected in N. cervina (42%) coupled with higher survival of larvae in superparasitized hosts in this species. The frequency distribution of attack of R. conicus by M. aethiopoides was not different from random. Parasitoid development was more rapid in the natural host, S. discoideus, and parasitoid size was positively correlated with host size. There was a strong positive relationship between parasitoid larval survival and the presence of teratocytes in all hosts. Host fecundity and fertility were reduced by parasitism for most species, and in some cases, by exposure to parasitoids in the absence of detectable parasitism. It was concluded that laboratory observations can provide useful information on the compatibility between host and parasitoid which can complement traditional host range tests to predict field host range.

An Hha 1 based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay developed for the detection of Brugia malayi, the causative agent of Brugian lymphatic filariasis, was evaluated for its sensitivity in the laboratory and for its usefulness in measuring changes in transmission of the disease in the field. Laboratory studies showed that the new assay was highly sensitive in comparison with the standard dissection and microscopy technique. The assay can detect as little as 4 pg of parasite DNA or a single microfilaria in pools of up to 100 mosquitoes. The optimum pool size for convenience was found to be 50 mosquitoes per pool. The efficacy of PCR assay was evaluated in filariasis control programmes in operation in endemic areas of Kerala State, South India. The infection rates obtained by the Hha I PCR assay and the conventional dissection and microscopy technique were 1.2% and 1.7% respectively in operational areas and 8.3% and 4.4% respectively, in check areas, which were not significantly different (P < 0.05). Thus, the Hha I PCR assay was found to be as sensitive as the conventional technique and hence it can be used as a new epidemiological tool for assessing parasite infection in field-collected mosquitoes.

A study on populations of Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood on Antelope Island, Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe provided Jolly-Seber (J-S) mark–recapture estimates of adult survival and Moran curve estimates of the overall survival of all developmental stages. For females, Moran survival estimates derived using ox fly-round catches showed similar trends to, but were more variable than, those calculated from J-S population estimates. Regression of one set on the other removed only 26% of the variance. Undue emphasis should not be placed on small changes in Moran survival estimates based on sequences of catches. Catch data cannot provide Moran estimates of male survival probabilities and no comparison is thus possible with estimates from the J-S data. The J-S and the Moran approaches were combined to estimate survival probabilities of the immature stages of male and female tsetse. The overall survival per three-week period averaged 45% for males and 59% for females, comprising mature adult survivals of 27 and 46%, and pooled survivals of immature stages of 59 and 77%, respectively. The high survival of immature flies is due to the sheltered, inactive nature of pupal life. Adult and overall survival probabilities were highly correlated in males (r2 = 0.61) but less so in females (r2 = 0.24) where capture rates were lower and variance in the results greater. Immature and overall survival was more highly correlated for both sexes, with r2 = 0.77 and 0.53 for males and females respectively. When a fixed pupal mortality of 1% per day was assumed, estimates of the survival of young adult males suggested that these were even lower than the survival of mature flies at the harshest times of the year, but were not markedly different when overall survival was high. Assuming equal mortality in all adults enabled the estimation of pupal survival. These had high variances but there was no evidence of any difference between the survival probabilities of male and female pupae.

A simple density-dependent reinvasion model is described and used to estimate tsetse fly populations on the basis of removal trapping experiments. The model was tested on Glossina fuscipes fuscipes Newstead in the Central African Republic and G. palpalis palpalis (Robineau-Desvoidy) in the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville). The density-dependence is modelled by postulating that the inflow of flies each day is proportional to the deficit relative to the equilibrium population. Non-linear least square techniques were used to estimate the following parameters: the daily capture rate, the strength of the density-dependence, and the equilibrium fly population, at the beginning and at the end of the trapping experiment. The model ignores birth and death rates of flies and is applicable only when a rapid decrease in population occurs over a short period (between 10 and 20 days). Over longer periods one could not ignore the natural growth of the populations as well as other more complex density-dependent mechanisms.

Various aspects were studied of the brood size and sex allocation strategies, and of size-fitness relationships in Parallorhogas pyralophagus (Marsh), a gregarious ectoparasitoid of Eoreuma loftini Dyar. Brood size was significantly correlated with host size; larger hosts were allocated larger broods. Brood sex ratios were fixed precisely at 1 male per 4 females, and eggs were likely to be deposited in that order; differential mortality did not contribute to this precise sex ratio. The sex allocation strategy of P. pyralophagus is likely to conform to strict, i.e. single foundress, local mate competition. Adoption of this strategy is probably influenced by a limited insemination capacity of males; a smaller proportion of females (0.09 vs. 0.21) remained virgin in broods with precise or higher sex ratios (≥0.20 males) relative to broods with lower than precise sex ratios (< 0.20 males). Moreover, all females were inseminated in most broods (60%) with precise or higher sex ratios, whereas this did not occur in broods with lower than precise sex ratios. The hypothesized occurrence of strict local mate competition in P. pyralophagus was supported also by observations that: (i) offspring brood sex ratios were independent of maternal brood sex ratios and number of parental females concurrently allocating offspring to a group of hosts, and; (ii) the rate of superparasitism under no-choice conditions was low (~20%), suggesting that rates of outbreeding in the field are low. Other results suggested that fitness in P. pyralophaguswas correlated with adult size; longevity and reproductive capacity both increased with adult size in males and females. However, adult size may be more important for females than for males because the differences in reproductive capacity between the largest and smallest individuals was up to 7.3 times greater in females versus <2 times in males.

A raster or grid-based Geographic Information System with data on tsetse, trypanosomiasis, animal production, agriculture and land use has recently been developed in Togo. The area-wide sampling of tsetse fly, aided by satellite imagery, is the subject of two separate papers. This paper on a first paper, published in this journal, describing the generation of digital tsetse distribution and abundance maps and how these accord with the local climatic and agro-ecological setting. Such maps when combined with data on the disease, the hosts and their owners, should contribute the knowledge of the spatial epidemiology of trypanosomiasis and assist planning of integrated control operations. Here we address the problem of generating tsetse distribution and abundance maps from remotely sensed data, using a restricted amount of field data. Different discriminant models have been applied using contemporary tsetse data and remotely sensed, low resolution data acquired from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Meteosat platforms. The results confirm the potential of satellite data application and multivariate for the prediction of the tsetse distribution and abundance. This opens up new avenues because satellite predictions and field data may be combined to strengthen and/or substitute one another. The analysis shows how the strategic incorporation of satellite imagery may minimize field of data. Field surveys may be modified and conducted in two stages, first concentrating on the expected fly distribution limits and thereafter on fly abundance. The study also shows that when applying satellite data, care should be taken in selecting the optimal number of predictor because this number varies with the amount of training data for predicting abundance and on the homogeneity of the distribution limits for predicting fly presence. Finally, it is suggested that in addition to the use of contemporary training data and predictor variables, training predicted data sets should refer to the same eco-geographic zone.

Performance and genetic variability of clonal lineages derived from one Californian and one German population of grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae Fitch were studied on their natal grape rootstock host and on three novel hosts over four generations in an aseptic dual culture system. The ability of D. vitifoliae to adapt to new hosts was measured by changes in fitness (rm) over four generations. The performance of a given clonal lineage changed over successive generations, depending upon the host plant and the phylloxera group. Analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphism–polymerase chain reaction (AFLP–PCR) banding patterns from 40 individual parthenogenetic D. vitifoliae revealed equal levels of genetic variation both among the four clonal lineages analysed and within the different generations of one lineage. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed no significant differences between the D. vitifoliae lineages reared on different host plants, nor was a correlation between host performance and genotype found.

Between October 1999 and April 2000, nearly 4000 ha of nymphal bands and adult swarms of Chortoicetes terminifera (Walker) were aerially treated using a ULV oil formulation of strain FI-985 of Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum. During the mild weather (maxima 22–30°C) of spring (October), there was little change in nymphal bands during the first week but at all doses between 25–100 g (1–4 × 1012 conidia) ha−1, the bands rapidly declined 9–12 days after treatment reaching > 90%mortality by 14 days. Metarhizium persisted for some time as there was 50% mortality of locusts fed vegetation collected from the treated blocks seven days after treatment. Persistence was confirmed by the high mortality of bands that invaded from untreated areas and of nymphs that hatched on the plot five to seven days after treatment, though mortality was then delayed until early in the third week. During summer (January), temperatures were high (maxima 36–42°C), and at all doses between 25 and 125 g (1–5 × 1012 conidia) ha−1, there was a rapid decline seven to ten days after treatment. By 12–14 days, there was a > 90% decline in numbers in most blocks which was confirmed by helicopter surveys two weeks after treatment that found very few adults within or near treated areas. Mortality was delayed in the high dose where there were blockages of spray equipment during treatment. The clear demonstration that Metarhiziumcan suppress small local populations of C. terminifera led to the limited operational use of Metarhizium on an organic farm and in a National Park where nearly 2500 ha of bands and swarms were treated. Continued research is needed to develop a commercially viable product so that Metarhizium can form a significant part of a programme of integrated pest management of locusts in Australia.

Monitoring for organophosphate and carbamate resistance was carried out on five major insect pests of cotton collected from 22 cotton-growing districts across India. Resistance was monitored in Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) and Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) for the period 1995–1999 and for Spodoptera litura (Fabricius), Earias vittella (Fabricius) and Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in a survey conducted during the 1997–98 cropping season. Of the 53 field strains of H. armigera, only four were found to exhibit resistance to quinalphos, the highest 15-fold, whereas all 16 field strains tested were found to be resistant to monocrotophos. Similarly, out of 40 field strains tested, only eight were found to express appreciable resistance to methomyl. Resistance in P. gossypiella to quinalphos was high in the majority of the strains tested. Of the seven strains of E. vittella tested, two strains from northern India exhibited > 70-fold resistance to monocrotophos. Of the 11 S. litura strains tested, only four were found to exhibit resistance factors of 10 to 30-fold to quinalphos and monocrotophos. All of the B. tabaci field strains exhibited resistance to methomyl and monocrotophos and susceptibility to triazophos. Practical implications for pest control resulting from the observed patterns of cross-resistance between quinalphos, monocrotophos and methomyl are discussed.

Studies on the effect of temperature on the development, longevity and population growth of Cotesia flavipes Cameron and Cotesia sesamiae (Cameron) indicated that the development of both Cotesia spp. from oviposition to cocoon formation and adult emergence was inversely to temperature. The longevity of the parasitoids was also inversely related to temperature. Both parasitoids lived longer when moisture and food (agar + honey/water) were provided. The mean number of females and total adult progeny produced by C. flavipes on two host were, in most cases, higher than C. sesamiae. The intrinsic rate of natural increase of C. flavipes was higher than that of C. sesamiae.