The attraction of several adult predators, genera Elatophilus, Hemerobius and Sympherobius, to the sex pheromones of pine bast scales, Matsucoccus Cockerell, has already been demonstrated. Here, the hypothesis that the larvae of these predators are similarly attracted to the host prey sex pheromone is tested. The response of predators was tested in field trials using pine tree arenas baited with the sex pheromones of M. josephi Bodenheimer & Harpaz, M. feytaudi Ducasse and M. matsumurae Kuwana. Experiments were conducted in Israel in stands of Pinus halepensis infested by M. josephi and in Portugal in stands of P. pinaster infested by M. feytaudi, respectively. The selectivity of larvae for the three sex pheromones was tested in Petri dish arenas in the laboratory. In the field, the larval stages exhibited similar modes of attraction to those of the conspecific adults: Elatophilus hebraicus Pericart in Aleppo pine forest, E. crassicornis Reuter and Hemerobius stigma Stephens in the maritime pine forests. Laboratory choice tests confirmed the kairomonal selectivity of larvae. Both forest and laboratory tests demonstrated the response of a coccinellid of the genus Rhyzobius to the sex pheromones of M. feytaudi and M. matsumurae. A unique chemical communication system among several taxa of predators of Matsucoccus spp. was highlighted that may be attributed to their coevolution on a geological time scale.

The life table statistics of six native Kenyan species/strains of Trichogramma and Trichogrammatoidea were established using a factitious host Corcyra cephalonica, Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), at eight different temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 28, 30, 32 and 35°C) and two humidity levels (40–50 and 70–80%). The objective was to select insects with superior attributes for augmentative release against lepidopteran pests in horticultural crops. Both temperature and humidity affected developmental time and life table parameters of the parasitoids but temperature played a more critical role. Developmental time was inversely related to temperature. The intrinsic and finite rates of increase increased with temperature up to 30°C. Both net reproduction rate and intrinsic rate of increase were higher at the lower humidity. Temperature inversely affected generation time of parasitoid strains regardless of the relative humidity. Two strains of Trichogramma sp. nr. mwanzai collected from both low and medium altitudes and Trichogrammatoidea sp. nr. lutea from the mid-altitudes, were better adapted to both low and high temperatures than the other strains, as indicated by the high intrinsic and net reproductive rates, at both humidity levels. These three strains appear to be promising candidates for augmentation biocontrol against the African bollworm Helicoverpa armigera in Kenya.

Herbivorous insects are influenced by both ‘bottom-up’ forces mediated through host plants and ‘top-down’ forces from natural enemies. Few studies have tried to evaluate the relative importance of the two forces in determining the abundance of insects. The leaf beetle Phratora vulgatissima Linnaeus sometimes occurs at high densities and severely damages the willow Salix cinerea in forest habitats. For willows growing in open agricultural landscapes (farmland S. cinerea), the leaf beetle generally occurs at low densities and plants receive little damage. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the relative importance of host plant quality and natural enemies behind the observed difference in P. vulgatissima abundance. Female egg-laying and larval performance (growth and survival) were studied on caged willow branches in the field to investigate if plant quality differs between S. cinerea trees growing in forest and farmland habitats. The survival of eggs exposed to natural enemies was examined to see if predation could explain the low abundance of leaf beetles on farmland willows. The results indicated no difference in plant quality; female egg laying and larval performance did not differ between the forest and the farmland. However, heteropteran predators (true bugs) were more abundant, and the survival of eggs was lower, on plants in the farmland habitat than in the forest habitat. The data suggest that the low abundance of P. vulgatissima on farmland willows could not be explained by a poor quality of plants, but more likely by high predation from heteropterans.

Host shifts in herbivorous insects are thought to sometimes provide enemy-free space on the novel host plant. A population of the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus), an oligophagous pest on crucifers, recently shifted to sugar snap- and snowpeas (Pisum sativum) in Kenya, resulting in heavy damage to these crops. The impact of this host shift on the interaction with Diadegma mollipla (Holmgren), one of the most frequent parasitoid species attacking P. xylostella in this area, was investigated. Parasitism rates and development of two strains of D. mollipla, one reared from a cabbage-feeding strain of P. xylostella and the second from the new pea-feeding strain, changed based on the host-plant that P. xylostella fed upon, with both parasitoid strains more effective on the novel host plant. Parasitism by the cabbage-D. mollipla strain on P. xylostella infesting peas was four times higher than on P. xylostella infesting cabbage when a single plant species was present. However, when both crops were offered together, the level of parasitism dropped to the level seen when cabbage was offered alone. Diadegma mollipla developed on both hosts, but cabbage-D. mollipla had a longer total development time. Pupae of cabbage-feeding P. xylostella were significantly heavier than pupae of pea-feeding P. xylostella and parasitism had no influence on these differences. Diadegma mollipla preferred to parasitize the pea-feeding P. xylostella. Thus, the host shift by P. xylostella to a novel host plant did not necessarily provide enemy-free space, with the parasitoid species tested. The implications of these findings for the host–parasitoid relationship are discussed.

The European Peristenus relictus Loan (syn. P. stygicus) has been considered for biological control of Lygus plant bugs native to Canada. Laboratory and field studies were conducted in the area of origin to evaluate the host specificity of P. relictus. Laboratory choice and no-choice tests demonstrated that P. relictus attacked all non-target species offered (fundamental host range). However, closely related non-target mirids (tribe Mirini) were generally well accepted by P. relictus, while hosts from the tribe Stenodemini were less frequently attacked and less suitable for parasitoid development. To validate the laboratory results, a thorough examination of the parasitoid complex of common mirids in Europe was conducted to determine which non-target species may serve as alternative hosts for P. relictus in a natural situation (ecological host range). When comparing both approaches, the fundamental host range of P. relictus matched its ecological host range. In addition to three Lygus species, the ecological host range of P. relictus in the area of Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany, contains at least 16 non-target species, including hosts belonging to the subfamilies Mirinae, Phylinae and Bryocorinae. A broad ecological and fundamental host range suggests that P. relictus is a generalist; however, P. relictus was not the primary contributor to parasitism of most non-target hosts studied. Although P. relictus is assumed to be of minor importance for regulating non-target populations in the area of investigation, the results of the present study indicate that P. relictus has the potential to use non-target host populations for reproduction.

The rate of dung-pat degradation in cattle pastures in south west England was examined between May and September 2002, using batches of standardized, 1.5 kg, artificially-formed cow pats. In pats in which insects were allowed free access, the rate of disappearance, measured as ash-free dry weight, was faster in spring than summer and the loss of organic matter ranged between 0.69 and 1.99% per day, equating to an estimated time for complete disappearance of 57–78 and 88–111 days in spring and summer, respectively. To assess the role of colonizing insects on decomposition, six batches of pats were constructed and either left uncovered or, using fine mesh cages, were covered for 2, 7 or 14 days following deposition to exclude colonizing insects, after which they were uncovered. After 35 days all pats were then retrieved from the field, the composition of the invertebrate community within each pat was determined and the degree of degradation, measured as ash-free dry weight, was assessed. Covered pats had significantly higher rates of ash-free dry weight loss than uncovered pats. From the 180 pats that were recovered and searched, larvae of Aphodius (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) were the most numerous taxon collected (1435 individuals). Aphodius larvae were significantly more abundant in pats that remained uncovered or were covered for 2 days only, compared to pats that had been covered for 7 or 14 days. The results show that the exclusion of insects for as little as two days following deposition causes a significant reduction in both the insect population and the subsequent rate of pat degradation.

Environment-friendly farming techniques seek to increase invertebrate biodiversity in part with the intention of encouraging greater numbers of predators that will help to control crop pests. However, in theory, this effect may be negated if the availability of a greater abundance and diversity of alternative prey diverts predators away from feeding on pests. The hypothesis that access to alternative prey can lead to reduced pest suppression under semi-field conditions was tested. Alternative prey type and diversity were manipulated in 70 mesocosms over 7+ weeks in the presence of the carabid Pterostichus melanarius (Illiger), a known predator of slugs, and reproducing populations of the slug Deroceras reticulatum (Müller). Significantly fewer slugs survived where no alternative prey were provided. Maximum slug numbers and biomass were found in treatments containing either carabids plus a high diversity of alternative prey (many species of earthworm and three of Diptera larvae) or a single additional prey (blowfly larvae, Calliphora vomitoria Linnaeus). In these treatments slug numbers and biomass were as high as in plots lacking predators. The effects of alternative prey were taxon-specific. Alternative prey strongly affected carabid fitness in terms of biomass and egg load. The fittest predators (those with access to high alternative prey diversity or C. vomitoria larvae) reduced slug numbers the least. The mean individual slug weights were greater in treatments with alternative prey than where no alternative prey were provided to the carabids. These results suggest that pests may survive and reproduce more rapidly in patches where predators have access to alternative prey.

The tomato–potato psyllid Bactericera [Paratrioza] cockerelli (Sulc) has recently caused losses exceeding 50% on fresh market tomatoes in California and Baja, Mexico by injecting a toxin that results in a condition known as ‘psyllid yellows’. The objectives of this study were to: (i) document oviposition preferences on a range of tomato cultivars; (ii) determine threshold levels for psyllid densities that would cause psyllid yellows on tomatoes within the first three weeks following transplanting; and (iii) identify the most important ‘psyllid yellows’ symptoms that might be used in surveying and monitoring for this pest. Plant lines tested included the commonly-planted commercial cultivars ‘Shady Lady’ and ‘QualiT 21’, an older, previously commercial cultivar ‘7718 VFN’, a common cultivar planted by consumers ‘Yellow Pear’, and a wild type plant accession, PI 134417. When given a choice, psyllids significantly preferred ‘Yellow Pear’ and avoided PI 134417 for oviposition. Under no-choice conditions psyllids laid significantly fewer eggs on PI 134417, but all the other plant lines were equally good substrates for laying eggs. Thus, oviposition preference is not likely to provide a functional management strategy in large plantings. On ‘Shady Lady’, psyllids preferred to oviposit on plants already infested with adults. On both ‘Shady Lady’ and ‘7718 VFN’ oviposition was significantly greater on plants previously infested by nymphs as compared to uninfested control plants. This suggests that, at least for some cultivars, there is a physiological change in plant attractiveness following psyllid feeding. ‘Yellow Pear’ and ‘QualiT 21’ were relatively tolerant of psyllids, requiring 18 nymphs per plant to produce the disease symptoms. Only eight nymphs per plant were needed on ‘Shady Lady’ and ‘7718 VFN’. For all cultivars, the pest density showed strong correlations with measurements such as the number of yellowing leaves and leaflets and distorted leaves, which were as good as or better than the first factor extracted from principal component analysis. Therefore, such measurements have the potential to simplify field surveys.

The orchard bee species Osmia cornuta (Latreille) and O. rufa (Linnaeus) are both European in distribution. Osmia cornuta is distributed in the central and southern half of the continent, while O. rufa is distributed additionally in more northern parts of Europe, including Great Britain. These bees over-winter in cocoons as diapausing adults. The freezing temperatures of overwintering adults of O. cornuta and O. rufa during diapause are similar: −30°C to −24°C and −31°C to −26°C, respectively. However, there are differences in the termination of their diapause. Under natural conditions in the wider area of Belgrade, O. rufa appears in spring about two weeks later than O. cornuta.

The potato bug, Closterotomus norwegicus (Gmelin) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is an introduced pest of lucerne, white clover and lotus seed crops in New Zealand and a key pest of pistachios in California, USA. Efforts were made to identify potential biological control agents of C. norwegicus in Europe. A total of eight parasitoids, including six primary parasitoids from the genus Peristenus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and two hyperparasitoids from the genus Mesochorus (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), were reared from C. norwegicus nymphs collected in various habitats in northern Germany. With a proportion of more than 85% of all C. norwegicus parasitoids, Peristenus closterotomae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a new species, was the most dominant parasitoid, whereas other parasitoid species only occurred sporadically. Peristenus closterotomae did not fit in the keys to any described species and is described as new to science. Parasitism caused by P. closterotomae was on average 24% (maximum 77%). To assess the host specificity of parasitoids associated with C. norwegicus, the parasitoid complexes of various Miridae occurring simultaneously with C. norwegicus were studied. Peristenus closterotomae was frequently reared from Calocoris affinis (Herrich-Schaeffer), and a few specimens were reared from Calocoris roseomaculatus (De Geer) and the meadow plant bug, Leptopterna dolobrata (Linnaeus) (all Hemiptera: Miridae). The remaining primary parasitoids associated with C. norwegicus were found to be dominant in hosts other than C. norwegicus. Whether nymphal parasitoids may potentially be used in a classical biological control initiative against the potato bug in countries where it is introduced and considered to be a pest is discussed.

Six Australian species of Coptotermes are traditionally recognized, but recent cuticular hydrocarbon studies suggest that some of these may represent more than one species. An understanding of the phylogenetic diversity of Australian Coptotermes, particularly the pest species, is likely to be important for the improvement of termite management strategies. A study of phylogenetic relationships among species of this genus was performed, based on the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (COII) gene, comparing the data with recent data from Asian species. Representatives of the species C. lacteus (Froggatt), C. frenchi Hill and C. michaelseni Silvestri were each found to form closely related monophyletic groups, however representatives of C. acinaciformis (Froggatt) were not. For C. acinaciformis, representatives from northern mound-building populations were found to form a distinct group to southern, tree-nesting forms. Among southern C. acinaciformis, two Western Australian representatives were found to be divergent from other populations. The results suggest that C. acinaciformis probably represents a complex of species rather than one, as has been suggested previously. One unidentified Coptotermes sp. taxon from Melbourne was found to be divergent from other taxa. Notably, some Australian species were more closely related to Asian species than other Australian species.

For insect herbivores, the quality of the larval host plant is a key determinant of fitness. Therefore, insect populations are supposed to be positively correlated with the nutritional quality of their host plant. This study aimed to determine if and how different varieties of grapes (including the wild grape Lambrusque) affect both larval and adult performance of the polyphagous European grapevine moth Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller). Significant differences were found in larval development time, but not in pupal mass, adult emergence rate, or sex ratio. Although the fecundity of females is not different among varieties, females fed on some varieties produced eggs of different sizes which are correlated to their fertility. Thus, females adapt resource allocation to eggs depending on their diet as larvae. Using a fitness index, the average reproductive output was found to be highest for females reared on cv. Chardonnay. Females reared on wild grape produced a fitness index identical to the cultivated grapes. However, Lambrusque and Gewurztraminer separate themselves from the cultivated varieties according to our discriminant analyses. It is emphasized, through this study, that cultivars fed on by larvae should be considered in the population dynamics of L. botrana and that egg number is insufficient to determine host plant quality.

Histological studies were conducted on cowpea pods fed upon by the coreoid pod-sucking bugs, Anoplocnemis curvipes (Fabricius), Clavigralla tomentosicollis Stå;l, C. shadabi Dolling, Riptortus dentipes (Fabricius) and Mirperus jaculus (Thunberg). Various degrees of tissue and cellular disruption were apparent, especially in the brachysclereids. They were manifested in terms of plasmolysis, cell enlargement and cell wall disintegration depending on the coreoid species involved. The feeding site and its periphery had all the cells of the brachysclereids plasmolysed, with the parenchyma having broken cell walls in the case of A. curvipes. Riptortus dentipes and M. jaculus showed similar patterns of feeding activity but less extensive levels of damage. The Clavigralla spp., however, caused cell enlargement in the brachysclereids, and broken cell walls in both the brachysclereids and the parenchyma. Damage symptoms were observed in cells far away from the feeding sites of the bugs, suggesting the possibility of sucrase activity which has been reported to cause osmotic pump feeding in the Coreidae.