Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T15:30:06.588Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The use of high-selenium yeast to raise selenium status: how does it measure up?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2007

Margaret P. Rayman
Margaret P. Rayman*
Affiliation:
Centre for Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
*
*Corresponding author: Dr M. P. Rayman, fax +44 1483 300374, email [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) is a common form of Se used to supplement the dietary intake of this important trace mineral. However, its availability within the European Union is under threat, owing to concerns expressed by the European Community (EC) Scientific Committee on Food that Se-yeast supplements are poorly characterised and could potentially cause the build up of Se in tissues to toxic levels. The present review examines the validity of these concerns. Diagrams of the biosynthesis and metabolism of Se compounds show which species can be expected to occur in Se-yeast preparations. Se-yeast manufacture is described together with quality-control measures applied by reputable manufacturers. The way in which speciation of Se-yeast is achieved is explained and results on amounts of Se species in various commercial products are tabulated. In all cases described, selenomethionine is the largest single species, accounting for 54–74 % of total Se. Se-yeast is capable of increasing the activity of the selenoenzymes and its bioavailability has been found to be higher than that of inorganic Se sources in all but one study. Intervention studies with Se-yeast have shown the benefit of this form in cancer prevention, on the immune response and on HIV infection. Of about one dozen supplementation studies, none has shown evidence of toxicity even up to an intake level of 800 μg Se/d over a period of years. It is concluded that Se-yeast from reputable manufacturers is adequately characterised, of reproducible quality, and that there is no evidence of toxicity even at levels far above the EC tolerable upper intake level of 300 μg/d.

Keywords

Selenium-enriched yeastSpeciationBioavailabilityToxicity
Type
Review article
Information
British Journal of Nutrition , Volume 92 , Issue 4 , October 2004 , pp. 557 - 573
Copyright
Copyright © The Nutrition Society 2004

References

Aaseth, J, Haugen, M & Forre, O (1998) Rheumatoid arthritis and metal compounds – perspectives on the role of oxygen radical detoxification. Analyst 123, 3–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, ML, Lombi, E, Zhao, F-J & McGrath, S (2002) Evidence of low selenium concentrations in UK bread-making wheat grain. J Sci Food Agric 82, 1160–1165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alfthan, G, Aro, A, Arvilommi, H & Huttunen, JK (1991) Selenium metabolism and platelet glutathione peroxidase activity in healthy Finnish men: effects of selenium yeast, selenite, and selenate. Am J Clin Nutr 53, 120–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alfthan, G & Neve, J (1996) Selenium intakes and plasma selenium levels in various populations. In Natural Antioxidants and Food Quality in Atherosclerosis and Cancer Prevention pp. 161 – 167 [Kumpulainen, J and Salonen, J, editors]. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.Google Scholar
Arteel, GE, Gavin, E, Bribiva, K & Seis, H (1999) Protection against peroxynitrite. FEBS Lett 445, 226–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, MA, Esworthy, RS, Ho, Y-S & Chu, F-F (1998) Glutathione peroxidase protects mice from viral-induced myocarditis. FASEB J 12, 1143–1149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, MA, Nelson, HK, Shi, Q, Van Dael, P, Schiffrin, EJ, Blum, S, Barclay, D & Levander, OA (2001) Selenium deficiency increases the pathology of an influenza virus infection. FASEB J 15, 1481–1483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, MA, Shi, Q, Morris, VC & Levander, OA (1995) Rapid genomic evolution of a non-virulent Coxsackievirus B3 in selenium-deficient mice results in selection of identical virulent isolates. Nat Med 1, 433–436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, W (1989) Food Habits and Nutrient Intake in Sweden 1989. Uppsala, Sweden: Swedish National Food Administration.Google Scholar
Berry, MJ, Banu, L, Chen, YY, Mandel, SJ, Kieffer, JD, Harney, JW & Larsen, PR (1991) Recognition of UGA as a selenocysteine codon in type I deiodinase requires sequences in the 3' untranslated region. Nature 353, 273–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, MJ, Banu, L, Harney, JW & Larsen, PR (1993) Functional characterization of the eukaryotic SECIS elements which direct selenocysteine insertion at UGA codons. EMBO J 12, 3315–3322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, SM, Uden, PC, Tyson, JF, Block, E & Denoyer, E (1997) Speciation of selenoamino acids and organoselenium compounds in selenium-enriched yeast using high-performance liquid chromatography inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. J Anal At Spectrom 12, 785–788.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blot, WJ, Li, JY, Taylor, PR, et al. (1993) Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl Cancer Inst 85, 1483–1492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bogye, G, Alfthan, G & Machay, T (1998) Bioavailability of enteral yeast-selenium in pre-term infants. Biol Trace Elem Res 65, 143–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, JD, Metter, EJ, Chan, DW, Sokoll, LJ, Landis, P, Nelson, WG, Muller, D, Andres, R & Carter, HB (2001) Plasma selenium level before diagnosis and the risk of prostate cancer development. J Urol 166, 2034–2038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broome, CS, McArdle, F, Kyle, JAM, Andrews, F, Lowe, NM, Hart, CA, Arthur, JR & Jackson, MJ (2004) An increase in selenium intake improves immune function and poliovirus handling in adults with marginal selenium status. Am J Clin Nutr 80, 154–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, KM, Pickard, K, Nicol, F, Beckett, GJ, Duthie, GG & Arthur, JR (2000) Effects of organic and inorganic selenium supplementation on selenoenzyme activity in blood lymphocytes, granulocytes, platelets and erythrocytes. Clin Sci 98, 593–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burbano, X, Miguez-Burbano, MJ, McCollister, K, Zhang, G, Rodriguez, A, Ruiz, P, Lecusay, R & Shor-Posner, G (2002) Impact of a selenium chemoprevention clinical trial on hospital admissions of HIV-infected participants. HIV Clin Trials 3, 483–491.Google ScholarPubMed
Chassaigne, H, Chéry, CC, Bordin, G, Vanhaecke, F & Rogríguez, AR (2004) 2-Dimensional gel electrophoresis technique for yeast selenium-containing proteins – sample preparation and MS approaches for processing 2-D gel protein spots. J Anal At Spectrom 19, 85–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, LC, Combs, GF Jr, Turnbull, BW, et al. (1996) Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin: a randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group. JAMA 276, 1957–1963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clausen, J & Nielsen, SA (1988) Comparison of whole blood selenium values and erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activities of normal individuals on supplementation with selenate, selenite, l -selenomethionine, and high selenium yeast. Biol Trace Elem Res 15, 125–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Combs, GF (1988) Selenium in foods. In Advances in Food Research, pp. 85 – 113 [Chichester, C and Schweiger, B, editors]. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Combs, GF Jr (2001) Selenium in global food systems. Br J Nutr 85, 517–547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Combs, GF Jr, Clark, LC, Turnbull, BW (2001) An analysis of cancer prevention by selenium. Biofactors 14, 153–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Combs, GF Jr, Lü, J (2001) Selenium as a cancer preventive agent. In Selenium: Its Molecular Biology and Role in Human Health, pp. 205 – 218 [Hatfield, DL, editors]. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (1991) Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the UK Report on Health and Social Subjects no. 41. London: HM Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Daniels, LA (1996) Selenium metabolism and bioavailability. Biol Trace Elem Res 54, 185–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danish Governmental Food Agency (1995) Food Habits of Danes 1995, Main Results. Soeborg, Denmark: Levnedsmiddelstyrelsen.Google Scholar
Davis, CD & Finley, JW (2003) Chemical versus food forms of selenium in cancer prevention. In Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals in Cancer Prevention, pp. 55 – 85 [Watson, RR, editors]. Ames, IA: Iowa State Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demirci, A (1999) Enhanced organically bound selenium yeast production by feed-batch fermentation. J Agric Food Chem 47, 2496–2500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diplock, AT (1993) Indexes of selenium status in human populations. Am J Clin Nutr 57, Suppl., 256S – 258S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Djujic, I, Djujic, B & Trajkovic, L (1995) Dietary intake of selenium in Serbia: results for 1991. Naucni Skupovi (Srpska Akademija Nauka I Umetnosti). Odeljenje Prirodno-Matematickih Nauka 6, 81–87.Google Scholar
Dorea, JG (2002) Selenium and breast-feeding. Br J Nutr 88, 443–461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duffield-Lillico, AJ, Reid, ME, Turnbull, BW, Combs, GF Jr, Slate, EH, Fischbach, LA, Marshall, JR & Clark, LC (2002) Baseline characteristics and the effect of selenium supplementation on cancer incidence in a randomized clinical trial: a summary report of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11, 630–639.Google Scholar
EC Scientific Committee on Food (2000) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of Selenium. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities.Google Scholar
EC Scientific Committee on Food (2003) Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the Revision of Reference Values for Nutrition Labelling. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities.Google Scholar
El-Bayoumy, K, Richie, JP Jr, Boyiri, T, Komninou, D, Prokopczyk, B, Trushin, N, Kleinman, W, Cox, J, Pittman, B & Colosimo, S (2002) Influence of selenium-enriched yeast supplementation on biomarkers of oxidative damage and hormone status in healthy adult males: a clinical pilot study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11, 1459–1465.Google Scholar
Encinar, JR, Ouerdane, L, Buchmann, W, Tortajada, J, Lobinski, R & Szpunar, J (2003) Identification of water-soluble selenium-containing proteins in selenized yeast by size-exclusion-reversed-phase HPLC/ICPMS followed by MALDI-TOF and electrospray Q-TOF mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 75, 3765–3774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairweather-Tait, SJ (1997) Bioavailability of selenium. Eur J Clin Nutr 51 Suppl. 1, S20–S23.Google ScholarPubMed
Fardy, JJ, McOrist, GD & Farrar, YJ (1989) The determination of selenium in the Australian diet using neutron activation analysis. J Radiolanal Nucl Chem 133, 391–396.Google Scholar
Finley, JW & Davis, CD (2001) Selenium (Se) from high-selenium broccoli is utilised differently than selenite, selenate and selenomethionine, but is more effective in inhibiting colon carcinogenesis. BioFactors 14, 191–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, the National Academies with Health Canada Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes (2000) Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Fordyce, FM, Guangdi, Z, Green, K & Xinping, L (2000) Soil, grain and water chemistry in relation to human Se-responsive diseases in Enshi District, China. Appl Geochem 15, 117–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, TE, van den Heuvel, EGHM, Atherton, CA, et al. (2004) Bioavailability of selenium from fish, yeast and selenate: a comparative study in humans using stable isotopes. Eur J Clin Nutr 58, 343–349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giovannucci, E (1998) Study of prediagnostic selenium level in toenails and the risk of advanced prostate cancer (Commentary). Lancet 352, 755–756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinle, K, Adam, A, Gradl, M, Wiseman, M & Adam, O (1997) Selenium concentration in erythrocytes of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and laboratory chemistry infection markers during administration of selenium. Med Klin 92 Suppl. 3, 29–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helzlsouer, KJ, Huang, HY, Alberg, AJ, Hoffman, S, Burke, A, Norkus, EP, Morris, JS & Comstock, GW (2000) Association between alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, selenium, and subsequent prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 92, 2018–2023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ip, C (1998) Lessons from basic research in selenium and cancer prevention. J Nutr 128, 1845–1854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ip, C, Birringer, M, Block, E, Kotrebai, M, Tyson, JF, Uden, P & Lisk, DJ (2000) Chemical speciation influences comparative activity of selenium-enriched garlic and yeast in mammary cancer prevention. J Agric Food Chem 48, 2060–2070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, CC, Ge, X, Green, KA & Liu, X (2000) Selenium distribution in the local environment of selected villages of the Keshan Disease belt, Zhangjiakou District, Hebei Province, People's Republic of China. Appl Geochem 15, 385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kadrabová, J, Mad'arič, A & Ginter, E (1998) Determination of the daily selenium intake in Slovakia. Biol Trace Element Res 61, 277–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keshan Disease Research Group (1979) Epidemiologic studies on the etiologic relationship of selenium and Keshan Disease. Chin Med J 92, 477–482.Google Scholar
Kim, YY & Mahan, DC (2001) Prolonged feeding of high dietary levels of organic and inorganic selenium to gilts from 25 kg body weight through one parity. J Anim Sci 79, 956–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kotrebai, M, Birringer, M, Tyson, JF, Block, E & Uden, PC (2000) Selenium speciation in enriched and natural samples by HPLC-ICP-MS and HPLC-ESI-MS with perfluorinated carboxylic acid ion-pairing agents. Analyst 125, 71–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumpulainen, J, Salmenpera, L, Siimes, MA, Koivistoinen, P & Perheentupa, J (1985) Selenium status of exclusively breast-fed infants as influenced by maternal organic or inorganic selenium supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr 42, 829–835.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumpulainen, JT (1993) Selenium in foods and diets of selected countries. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 7, 107–108.Google Scholar
Kvíčala, J, Zamrazil, V & Jiránek, V (1996) Selenium deficient status of the inhabitants of South Moravia. In Natural Antioxidants and Food Quality in Atherosclerosis and Cancer Prevention, pp. 177–187 [Kumpulainen, J and Salonen, J, editors]. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.Google Scholar
Lamand, M, Tressol, JC & Bellanger, J (1994) The mineral and trace element composition in French food items and intake levels in France. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 8, 195–202.Google ScholarPubMed
Larsen, EH, Hansen, M, Fan, T & Vahl, M (2001) Speciation of selenoamino acids, selenonium ions and inorganic selenium by ion exchange HPLC with mass spectrometric detection and its application to yeast and algae. J Anal At Spectrom 16, 1403–1408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen, EH, Hansen, M, Paulin, H, Moesgaard, S, Reid, M & Rayman, M (2004) Speciation and bioavailability of selenium in yeast-based intervention agents used in cancer chemoprevention studies. J AOAC Int 87, 225–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsen, EH, Sloth, J, Hansen, M & Moesgaard, S (2003) Selenium speciation and isotope composition in 77 Se-enriched yeast using gradient elution HPLC separation and ICP-dynamic reaction-cell MS. J Anal At Spectrom 18, 310–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levander, OA, Alfthan, G, Arvilommi, H, Gref, CG, Huttunen, JK, Kataja, M, Koivistoinen, P & Pikkarainen, J (1983) Bioavailability of selenium to Finnish men as assessed by platelet glutathione peroxidase activity and other blood parameters. Am J Clin Nutr 37, 887–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, H, Stampfer, MJ, Giovannucci, EL, Morris, JS, Willett, WC, Gaziano, JM & Ma, J (2004) A prospective study of plasma selenium levels and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 96, 696–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindemann, T & Hintelmann, H (2002) Identification of selenium-containing glutathione s-conjugates in a yeast extract by two dimensional liquid chromatography with inductively coupled plasma MS and nanoelectrospray MS/MS detection. Anal Chem 74, 4602–4610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lobinski, R, Edmonds, JS, Suzuki, KT & Uden, PC (2000) Species-selective determination of selenium compounds in biological materials. Pure Appl Chem 72, 447–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longnecker, MP, Taylor, PR, Levander, OA et al. (1991) Selenium in diet, blood, and toenails in relation to human health in a seleniferous area. Am J Clin Nutr 53, 1288–1294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luo, X, Qiao, Ch, Liu, X et al. (1987) Bioavailability of selenium to residents in a low-selenium area of China. In Selenium in Biology and Medicine, pp. 436–444 [Combs, GF, Spallholz, JE, Levander, OA and Oldfield, JE, editors]. New York: Avi-Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.Google Scholar
McGuire, MK, Burgert, SL, Milner, JA, Glass, L, Kummer, R, Deering, R, Boucek, R & Picciano, MF (1993) Selenium status of infants is influenced by supplementation of formula or maternal diets. Am J Clin Nutr 58, 643–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McSheehy, S, Pannier, F, Szpunar, J, Potin-Gautier, M & Lobinski, R (2002) Speciation of selenium compounds in yeast aqueous extracts by three-dimensional liquid chromatography with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometric and electrospray mass spectrometric detection. Analyst 127, 223–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malbe, M, Klaassen, M, Fang, W, Myllys, V, Vikerpuur, M, Nyholm, K, Sankari, S, Suoranta, K & Sandholm, M (1995) Comparisons of selenite and selenium yeast feed supplements on Se-incorporation, mastitis and leucocyte function in Se-deficient dairy cows. Zentralbl Veterinarmed 42A, 111–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, JR (2001) Larry Clark's legacy: randomized controlled, selenium-based prostate cancer chemoprevention trials. Nutr Cancer 40, 74–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1997) October. Food Surveillance Information Sheet no.126 London: Joint Food Safety and Standards Group.Google Scholar
Miyazaki, Y, Koyama, H, Hongo, T, Sasada, Y, Nojiri, M & Suzuki, S (2001) Nutritional considerations for changes in dietary habit and health promotion practices in community health care; from the viewpoint of selenium (in Japanese with English abstract). Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi (Jpn J Pub Health) 48, 243–257.Google Scholar
Nakamuro, K, Nakanishi, K, Okuno, T, Hasegawa, T & Sayato, Y (1997) Comparison of methylated selenium metabolites in rats after oral administration of various selenium compounds. Jpn J Toxicol Environ Health 43, 1482–1489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nève, J (1995) Human selenium supplementation as assessed by changes in blood selenium concentration and glutathione peroxidase activity. J Trace Elements Med Biol 9, 65–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nomura, AM, Lee, J, Stemmermann, GN & Combs, GF Jr (2000) Serum selenium and subsequent risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 9, 883–887.Google ScholarPubMed
Ortman, K & Pehrson, B (1999) Effect of selenate as a feed supplement to dairy cows in comparison to selenite and selenium yeast. J Anim Sci 77, 3365–3370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pehrson, B, Ortman, K, Madjid, N & Trafikowska, U (1999) The influence of dietary selenium as selenium yeast or sodium selenite on the concentration of selenium in the milk of suckler cows and on the selenium status of their calves. J Anim Sci 77, 3371–3376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peretz, A, Neve, J, Desmedt, J, Duchateau, J, Dramaix, M & Famaey, JP (1991) Lymphocyte response is enhanced by supplementation of elderly subjects with selenium-enriched yeast. Am J Clin Nutr 53, 1323–1328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peretz, A, Néve, J, Duchateau, JP & Famaey, JP (1992) Adjuvant treatment of recent onset rheumatoid arthritis by selenium supplementation: preliminary observations. Br J Rheumatol 31, 281–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polatajko, A, Sliwka-Kaszynska, M, Dernovics, M, Ruzik, R, Encinar, JR & Szpunar, JA (2004) Systematic approach to selenium speciation in selenized yeast. J Anal At Spectrom 19, 114–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rayman, MP (1997) Dietary selenium: time to act. BMJ 314, 387–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayman, MP (2000) The importance of selenium to human health. Lancet 356, 233–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayman, MP (2002) The argument for increasing selenium intake. Proc Nutr Soc 61, 203–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayman, MP, Bode, P & Redman, CWG (2003) Low selenium status is associated with the occurrence of the pregnancy disease preeclampsia in UK women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189, 1343–1349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reid, ME, Stratton, MS, Lillico, AJ, Fakih, M, Natarajan, R, Clark, LC & Marshall, JR (2004) A report of high-dose selenium supplementation: response and toxicities. J Trace Elem Med Biol 18, 69–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reilly, C (1996) Selenium in Food and Health. London: Blackie Academic and Professional.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robberecht, HJ, Hendrix, P, Van Cauenbergh, R & Deelstra, HA (1994) Actual daily intake of selenium in Belgium using duplicate portion sampling. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 199, 251–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrauzer, GN (2000) Selenomethionine: a review of its nutritional significance, metabolism and toxicity. J Nutr 130, 1653–1656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrauzer, GN (2001) Nutritional selenium supplements: product types, quality and safety. J Am Coll Nutr 20, 1–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrauzer, GN & White, DA (1978) Selenium in human nutrition: dietary intakes and effects of supplementation. Bioinorg Chem 8, 303–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sloth, JJ, Larsen, EH, Bugel, SH & Moesgaard, S (2003) Determination of total selenium and 77Se in isotopically enriched human samples by ICP-dynamic reaction cell-MS. J Anal At Spectrom 18, 317–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spallholz, JE, Palace, VP & Reid, VP (2004) Methioninase and selenomethionine but not Se-methylselenocysteine generate methylselenol and superoxide in an in vitro chemiluminescent assay: implications for the nutritional carcinostatic activity of selenoamino acids. Biochem Pharmacol 67, 547–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spallholz, JE & Raftery, A (1987) Nutritional, chemical, and toxicological evaluation of a high-selenium yeast. In Selenium in Biology and Medicine (Part A) pp. 516–529 [Combs, GF, Spallholtz, JE, Levander, OA and Oldfield, JE, editors]. New York: Nostrand Reinhold Co Inc.Google Scholar
Stratton, MS, Reid, ME, Schwartzberg, G, Minter, FE, Monroe, BK, Alberts, DS, Marshall, JR & Ahmann, FR (2003 a) Selenium and prevention of prostate cancer in high-risk men: the Negative Biopsy Study. Anticancer Drugs 14, 589–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stratton, MS, Reid, ME, Schwartzberg, G, Minter, FE, Monroe, BK, Alberts, DS, Marshall, JR & Ahmann, FR (2003 b) Selenium and inhibition of disease progression in men diagnosed with prostate carcinoma: study design and baseline characteristics of the ‘Watchful Waiting’ Study. Anticancer Drugs 14, 595–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sunde, RA (1997) Selenium In Handbook of Nutritionally Essential Mineral Elements, chapter 18, pp. 493–556 [O'Dell, BL and Sunde, RA, editors]. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.Google Scholar
Thomson, CD (2004) Assessment of requirements for selenium and adequacy of selenium status: a review. Eur J Clin Nutr 58, 391–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomson, CD & Paterson, E (2001) Australian and New Zealand Nutrient Reference Values for Selenium Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Health.Google Scholar
Thomson, CD & Robinson, MF (1996) The changing selenium status of New Zealand residents. Eur J Clin Nutr 50, 107–114.Google ScholarPubMed
Thomson, CD, Robinson, MF, Butler, JA & Whanger, PD (1993) Long-term supplementation with selenate and selenomethionine: selenium and glutathione peroxidase ( EC 1.11 1.9) in blood components of New Zealand women. Br J Nutr 69, 577–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trafikowska, U, Sobkowiak, E, Butler, JA, Whanger, PD & Zachara, BA (1998) Organic and inorganic selenium supplementation to lactating mothers increase the blood and milk selenium concentrations and selenium intake by breast-fed infants. J Trace Elem Med Biol 12, 77–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uden, PC, Totoe Boakye, H, Kahakachchi, C, Hafezi, R, Nolibos, P, Block, E, Johnson, S & Tyson, JF (2003) Element selective characterization of stability and reactivity of selenium species in selenized yeast. J Anal At Spectrom 18, 1–10.Google Scholar
van den Brandt, PA, Zeegers, MP, Bode, P & Goldbohm, RA (2003) Toenail selenium levels and the subsequent risk of prostate cancer: a prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12, 866–871.Google ScholarPubMed
van Dokkum, W (1995) The intake of selected minerals and trace elements in European countries. Nutr Res Rev 8, 271–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vannoort, R, Cressey, P & Silvers, K (2000) 1997/1998 New Zealand Total Diet Survey. Part 2: Elements. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Health.Google Scholar
Vinson, JA & Bose, P (1987) Comparison of the toxicity of inorganic and natural selenium. In Selenium in Biology and Medicine (part A), pp. 513–515 [Combs, GF, Spallholtz, JE, Levander, OA and Oldfield, JE, editors]. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.Google Scholar
Wang, Z, Jiang, C & Lu, J (2002) Induction of caspase-mediated apoptosis and cell-cycle G1 arrest by selenium metabolite methylselenol. Mol Carcin 34, 113–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wasowicz, W, Gromadzinska, J, Rydzynski, K & Tomczak, J (2003) Selenium status of low-selenium area residents: Polish experience. Toxicol Lett 137, 95–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wei, WQ, Abnet, CC, Qiao, YL, Dawsey, SM, Dong, ZW, Sun, XD, Fan, JH, Gunter, EW, Taylor, PR & Mark, SD (2004) Prospective study of serum selenium concentrations and esophageal and gastric cardia cancer, heart disease, stroke, and total death. Am J Clin Nutr 79, 80–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whanger, P, Vendeland, S, Park, Y-C & Xia, Y (1996) Metabolism of sub-toxic levels of selenium in animals and humans. Ann Clin Lab Sci 26, 99–113.Google Scholar
Whanger, PD (2004) Selenium and its relationship to cancer: an update. Br J Nutr 91, 11–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization/International Atomic Energy Agency expert group (1996) Trace Elements in Human Nutrition and Health, Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Yang, G, Wang, S, Zhou, R & Sun, S (1983) Endemic selenium intoxication of humans in China. Am J Clin Nutr 37, 872–881.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, G & Zhou, R (1994) Further observations on the human maximum safe dietary selenium intake in a seleniferous area of China. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 8, 159–165.Google Scholar
Yang, G, Zhou, R, Yin, S, Gu, L, Yan, B & Liu, Y (1989) Studies of safe maximal daily selenium intake in a seleniferous area in China. Part II. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 3, 123–130.Google Scholar
Yoshizawa, K, Willett, WC, Morris, SJ, Stampfer, MJ, Spiegelman, D, Rimm, EB & Giovanucci, E (1998) Study of prediagnostic selenium level in toenails and the risk of advanced prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 90, 1219–1224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yu, M-W, Horng, I-S, Chiang, Y-C, Liaw, Y-F, Chen, C-J (1999) Plasma selenium levels and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma among men with chronic hepatitis virus infection. Am J Epidemiol 150, 367–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yu, SY, Zhu, YJ & Li, WG (1997) Protective role of selenium against hepatitis B virus and primary liver cancer in Qidong. Biol Trace Elem Res 56, 117–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed