Bare-necked Umbrellabird Cephalopterus glabricollis is endemic to Costa Rica and western Panama. It eats fruit, breeding at high elevations (≥ 800 m) and migrating to lower elevations during the non-breeding season. Using data from transect counts and radio-telemetry, we monitored bird movements in a protected area (Monteverde–Arenal–San Ramón reserves) in the Tilarán Mountains, Costa Rica. We also monitored fruit abundance along an altitudinal gradient to explore the potential relationship between bird movements and the abundance of the fruits this species consumed. The presence and abundance of umbrellabirds at high elevations (1,400 m) during the breeding season (March–June) coincided with the highest peak of fruit abundance. The presence of umbrellabirds in the lowlands (400 m) during the non-breeding season overlapped with the period of highest fruit abundance at these elevations. At middle elevations, bird presence and abundance did not correlate with fruit abundance. Radio-tagged birds left the protected area during the non-breeding season and there were no umbrellabirds inside the protected area during this period. Habitats where this species bred were well represented in the protected area but the habitat where they spent the non-breeding season was poorly represented, and was not adequately protected. This represents a potential threat to this species in the Tilarán Mountains.

Collisions with power lines represent an important mortality factor for Great Bustards Otis tarda throughout the distribution range of the species. This study evaluates the success of two conservation measures implemented in the West-Pannonian distribution range to reduce the number of power line collision casualties: (1) extensive underground cabling of 43.1 km power lines, and (2) marking of 89.7 km power lines starting in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The mortality rate of Great Bustards in our study area (covering 686.5 km2) decreased significantly between 2002 and 2011, predominantly caused by reduced mortality due to power line collisions. Univariate tests indicate that underground cabling and power line marking significantly decreased power line collision casualties. Generalised linear models (GLMs) highlighted the prominent effect of underground cabling. Our results indicate that five years after underground cabling and marking of power lines within core areas of the West-Pannonian distribution range of the Great Bustard, the population already benefited through a significantly decreased mortality rate. Both conservation measures most likely contributed strongly to the rapid recovery of the West-Pannonian Great Bustard population observed within the last decade.

Populations of the recently split Northern Rockhopper Penguin Eudyptes moseleyi are restricted to Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island in the South Atlantic, and Amsterdam and St Paul in the Indian Ocean. The majority of the population is in the Atlantic (> 80%), but population trends at Tristan da Cunha and Gough are uncertain. Early records indicate “millions” of penguins used to occur at Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island. The most recent estimates indicate declines in excess of 90% for both Gough and the main island of Tristan that have occurred over at least 45 and 130 years, respectively. Numbers breeding at Inaccessible and Nightingale islands (TDC) also may have declined since the 1970s, albeit modestly, whereas numbers on Tristan appear stable over the last few decades. Current population estimates are 32,000–65,000 pairs at Gough, 18–27,000 at Inaccessible, 19,500 at Nightingale, and 3,200–4,500 at Tristan. Numbers and trends at Middle Island (TDC) are unknown. Middle Island supported an estimated 100,000 pairs in 1973, and recent observations suggest this colony is being impacted by competition for space with recently recolonising Subantarctic Fur Seals Arctocephalus tropicalis. Past human exploitation and the impact of introduced predators may be responsible for the historical decline in numbers at Tristan, but these factors cannot explain the sharp decrease (since the 1950s) at Gough Island. Overall, declines at Gough, Tristan, Nightingale and Inaccessible islands indicate a three-generation decline of > 50%. Taken in combination with recent decreases in Indian Ocean populations, the Northern Rockhopper Penguins is now categorised as globally ‘Endangered’. Determining the causal factors responsible for these recent declines is an urgent priority.

The Northern Bald Ibis or Waldrapp Geronticus eremita is a species of arid semi-deserts and steppes, which was formerly widely distributed as a breeding bird across North Africa, the Middle East and the European Alps. Just over 100 breeding pairs now remain in the wild at two sites in Morocco whilst two further wild pairs remain in Syria. There is also a population in Turkey, which is maintained for part of the year in captivity, and a large captive population in zoos. The species is classified by IUCN as ‘Critically Endangered’, the highest threat category. The wild population has grown during the past decade, which represents the first evidence of population growth in the species' recorded history. Conservation action in Morocco has contributed to this recovery. A large part of the contribution of research to conservation action has been to establish and document the value of simple site and species protection. Quantitative assessments of the importance of sites for breeding, roosting and foraging have helped to prevent disturbance and the loss of sites to mass-tourism development. Wardening by members of the local community have reduced disturbance by local people and others and increased the perceived value of the birds. Monitoring has suggested additional ways to improve the breeding status of the species, including the provision of drinking water and removal and deterrence of predators and competitors. These actions have been evaluated by subsequent testing. Steppe and two-year fallows were shown to be the key feeding habitats, and maintaining such non-intensive land uses in future may present major management challenges. The recovery in the Souss-Massa region remains precarious because the population is concentrated in a few places where adverse changes are possible. However, it could provide opportunities for natural extension of the range to formerly occupied sites further north in Morocco.

Ludwig’s Bustard Neotis ludwigii, endemic to Africa’s south-west arid zone, is susceptible to collisions with overhead power lines. Limited data from the south-eastern part of its range suggest that this factor may threaten its survival. We estimated transmission line collision rates for Ludwig’s Bustard across its South African range to assess the effect of this mortality on the population. Conservatively, collision rates averaged at least 0.63 ± 0.12 fatal collisions per km of transmission line per year, with relatively little regional variation. Despite being less abundant, the larger males were more collision-prone than females, which might account for the female-biased population. Extrapolating collision rates across the range of the species suggests that 4,000–11,900 birds are killed annually on high-voltage transmission lines. Actual mortality on overhead lines is probably much greater, given biases in carcass detection (crippling, scavenging and habitat biases), as well as the fact that our estimate excludes mortality on lower voltage distribution lines and telephone wires. Given an estimated global population of 56,000–81,000 birds in the late 1980s, the demographic invariant method suggests that such mortality is unsustainable. This result supports the recent upgrading of the conservation status of Ludwig’s Bustard from ‘Least Concern’ to ‘Endangered’, and highlights the need for further research on this problem.

We reviewed the importance of power lines as a cause of mortality for Eagle Owl in the Italian Alps. Power lines were the most important cause of unnatural mortality for this species, accounting for over 50% of recorded casualties. The number of reported dead owls tended to be higher in September–October, suggesting an influence on juvenile dispersal. Furthermore, the significance of power lines as a cause of mortality increased over time, being lower in the 1960–1980 period than in 1981–1999. Electrocution, which usually takes place at medium-voltage (15–30 kV) electricity poles, accounted for the vast majority of casualties. We suggest some protective measures that may be put into practice in the proximity of Eagle Owl breeding territories.

As anthropogenic stress increasingly affects the viability of natural populations of animals and plants, conservation ecologists are challenged to identify vulnerable populations before their demographic and/or genetic properties become irreversibly affected. Since traditional biomarkers of anthropogenic stress are often cumbersome to measure, and populations may thus go extinct before appropriate data can be obtained, there is a growing interest in individual-based markers that do not require repeated captures, are relatively easy to measure, and allow mitigating action one step ahead. One such marker, left-right asymmetry in bilateral symmetrical traits (“fluctuating asymmetry”, FA) has become an established bioassay of the quality and health of individuals and populations in evolutionary-ecological studies. However, the lack of a theoretical framework that predicts under which ecological conditions relationships between FA, stress and fitness can be expected, continues to hamper the use of FA in applied conservation. Here, we briefly review the concept, measurement and analysis of FA, and appraise its expediency in a selection of 21 avian studies covering environmental or genetic stress commonly encountered in conservation biology. The majority of studies met the basic statistical requirements of FA analysis, and two-thirds reported significant, positive relationships with environmental or genetic stress, although with substantial variation among traits, stresses, ages and sexes. In most cases, the observed heterogeneity in relationships with FA could be explained by taking into account both methodological and conceptual issues. Effect sizes ranged from very small (0.02) to very large (0.76), with a weighted average of 0.30, indicating that on average 9% of variance in the variable of interest was explained by FA. Given the intrinsic difficulties associated with FA analysis, conservation ecologists are advised to combine information from FA with that of other individual-based biomarkers, such as the study of growth-bar dimensions on developing feathers.

Forest ecosystems in South Africa are at risk from a variety of anthropogenic threats impacting the faunal species dependent on them. These impacts often differ depending on species-specific characteristics. Range data on forest dependent bird species from the South African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP1 and SABAP2) were analysed to determine links between deforestation, species characteristics and range declines. Half of the species studied were found to have declining ranges. Range change data for these species were correlated with data on changes in land cover from 1990 to 2014. To determine which land cover changes affect extinction, occupancy was modelled for 30 sites across South Africa which experienced a loss of more than 10 species. Most species lost were birds of prey or insectivores. Indigenous forest decreased in 17% (n = 5) sites, while plantations/woodlots decreased in 60% (n = 18) sites. Occupancy modelling showed extinction to be mitigated by plantations in 6/28 species, and forest expansion mitigated extinction in 7/28 species. Responses to deforestation did not appear to be related to particular species characteristics. Half of South Africa’s forest-dependent bird species have declining ranges, with the loss of these species most prominent in the Eastern Cape province. Four responses to changes in forest and plantation cover are discussed: direct effects, with forest loss causing species loss; matrix effects, where plantation loss resulted in species loss; degradation of indigenous forest; and the advent of new forest arising from woody thickening caused by carbon fertilisation, which may not result in optimal habitat for forest-dependent birds.

The Chimalapas region, in eastern Oaxaca, Mexico, holds lowland rainforests, tropical dry forests, and cloud forests typical of the Neotropics, as well as montane pine and pine-oak forests more typical of the Nearctic. Totaling more than 600,000 ha, much of the region is forested, and in a good state of preservation. The Chimalapas avifauna is by far the most diverse for any region of comparable size in the country, totalling at least 464 species in the region as a whole (with more than 300 species in the lowland rainforest) representing 44% of the bird species known from Mexico. Within the region, the humid Atlantic lowlands hold 317 species, the montane regions 113 species, and the southern dry forested lowlands 216 species. Important species present in the region include Harpy Eagle Harpia harpyja and several other large eagles, Black Penelopina nigra and probably Horned Oreophasis derbianus Guans, Scarlet Macaw Ara macao, Cinnamon-tailed Sparrow Aimophila sumichrasti, Rose-bellied Bunting Passerina rositae, and Resplendent Quetzal Pharomachrus mocinno. The area holds immense lowland rainforests and cloud forests that rank among the largest and best preserved in all of Mesoamerica, including a complete lowland-to-highland continuum, with entire watersheds preserved more or less intact.

Recent evidence indicates that insectivorous birds in shade coffee farms provide economically significant ecosystem services by reducing insect pests, which should encourage cultivation practices favouring birds and other wildlife. However, the provisioning of this service may be dependent on landscape composition and movement patterns of these mobile consumers. Very little information is currently available on bird movements in coffee-dominated landscapes. We examined roosting behaviour in Black-throated Blue Warblers Dendroica caerulescens on two Jamaican coffee farms using radio telemetry in order to determine whether birds commute between nocturnal roosts and diurnal foraging ranges in coffee habitat. Nocturnal tracking revealed most birds moved outside diurnal foraging ranges on the farms to roost in forested habitat patches, sometimes up to 1 km away. Of 42 roost locations, only eight roosts were within the coffee farm perimeter: one individual in a coffee bush, and seven others in shade trees or vegetated riparian strips. Logistic regression confirmed that birds strongly selected continuous forest and individual trees over coffee for roosting. These findings reflect the ecological connectivity between coffee habitats and the adjacent landscape and raise the possibility that the provisioning of pest reduction services could be at least partly dependent on a farm’s proximity to forest patches.

Three species of declining grassland songbirds were counted in June transects at 42 south-western Missouri (U.S.A.) prairie preserves managed three different ways: biennial July haying, spring burning on a 1–4 year cycle, and sites both burned and hayed every 2–4 years. Hayed prairies had twice as many Henslow's Sparrows Ammodramus henslowi as burned prairies and 2.5 times as many as sites which had been burned and hayed. Hayed prairies had 59% more Grasshopper Sparrows A. savannarum and 14% more Dickcissels Spiza americana than burned prairies. Fired and hayed sites had 34% higher detection rates of Grasshopper Sparrows than sites only burned and similar numbers of Henslow's Sparrows and Dickcissels as burned sites. The three species summed were 60% more abundant in hayed as in fired or fired and hayed prairies. Henslow's Sparrows increased and Grasshopper Sparrows decreased with time since the last management. Grasshopper Sparrows peaked one year earlier after haying than after burning. Dickcissels did not vary by time since last management. Henslow's Sparrows and Dickcissels were significantly more abundant in larger prairies. Preserve management for these three prairie birds should emphasize biennial to triennial mid-summer haying, instead of burning.

Local changes in land use can influence patterns of habitat selection by farmland birds, thus biasing predictions of population responses to land use changes based on wildlife-habitat or niche modelling. This study, based in arable farmland in south-central Spain, determined whether habitat selection (use of agricultural habitats and the distance to roads, tracks and buildings) by Great Bustards Otis tarda varied between two nearby areas with differing land uses. The western sector has experienced a process of land abandonment and infrastructure development linked to an airport project that started in 1998 and finished in 2009, while the eastern sector maintains extensive dry farmland systems. Great Bustards avoided ploughed fields and selected short- and long-term fallows. Selection of fallows was more intensive in the sector suffering recent land-use changes, where these substrates were more abundant. Great Bustards were distributed further from roads, paths and buildings than would be expected if individual birds selected habitats at random. Avoidance of infrastructure was strongest in the area suffering recent land-use changes. Local patterns of habitat selection seemed to change in relation to agricultural abandonment and infrastructure development. Consequently, conservation measures based on knowledge of broad patterns of habitat use and selection such as agri-environmental schemes may fail to ensure steppe bird conservation locally if such local effects are overlooked. Specifically, schemes should include landscape-scale restrictions on the development and use of infrastructure (roads, tracks and buildings). Analyses of the patterns and causes of local and regional changes in habitat selection are essential to conserve populations of endangered farmland birds.

Kirtland's Warbler Dendroica kirtlandii breeds in young jack pine Pinus banksiana forests on sandy soils in Michigan's lower peninsula, where there were 502 censused singing males in 1951 and 167 in 1974 and 1987. An ongoing control programme for the Brown-headed Cowbird Molothrus ater, a nest parasite, resulted in immediate and continued improvement in warbler reproductive success which was not, however, matched by an increase in warbler numbers until the 1990s. From three 1,000 ha reserves in the 1960s, currently over 54,000 ha are managed for the warbler. Despite the establishment of managed plantations, over 70% of warblers censused in the past 15 years have occupied habitat created by wildfires. Optimal habitat consists of more than 5,000 trees per hectare in a mosaic of dense patches interspersed with small openings. Nearly 70% of adult and 30% of juvenile warblers departing for the Bahamian wintering grounds return each spring, and the Michigan singing male population increased from 212 (1989) to 397 (1992) as abundant habitat, resulting from a 1980 wildfire, became available at Mack Lake. This suggests that lack of optimal habitat in Michigan has been the species's major problem.

Declines in Old World vulture populations have been linked to anthropogenic pressures. To assess these threats, the social dimensions of vulture conservation must be explored. Prior research in Africa focused on commercial farmers’ perceptions of vultures and identified that small stock farmers used poison more than large stock farmers to deter livestock predators. However, the vulnerable Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres breeds throughout communal farmland in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Consequently, community interviews were conducted within the foraging range of the Msikaba Cape Vulture colony, separating regions according to the amount of transformed land. Residents in the least transformed land region perceived the smallest reductions in livestock ownership over the past ten years, while residents of the moderately transformed region perceived the greatest reductions in livestock ownership. Livestock carcasses were reported to be available for vultures at ‘informal vulture restaurants’. Arrangement of livestock carcasses was found to be independent of land use; however type of carcass consumed varied. None of the respondents stated they used poison to eliminate livestock predators. More respondents cited illegal poaching of vultures for traditional medicine as a threat, although the majority stated that vultures benefited the community.

The catastrophic declines of three species of ‘Critically Endangered’ Gyps vultures in South Asia were caused by unintentional poisoning by the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac. Despite a ban on its veterinary use in 2006 (India, Nepal, Pakistan) and 2010 (Bangladesh), residues of diclofenac have continued to be found in cattle carcasses and in dead wild vultures. Another NSAID, meloxicam, has been shown to be safe to vultures. From 2012 to 2018, we undertook covert surveys of pharmacies in India, Nepal and Bangladesh to investigate the availability and prevalence of NSAIDs for the treatment of livestock. The purpose of the study was to establish whether diclofenac continued to be sold for veterinary use, whether the availability of meloxicam had increased and to determine which other veterinary NSAIDs were available. The availability of diclofenac declined in all three countries, virtually disappearing from pharmacies in Nepal and Bangladesh, highlighting the advances made in these two countries to reduce this threat to vultures. In India, diclofenac still accounted for 10–46% of all NSAIDs offered for sale for livestock treatment in 2017, suggesting weak enforcement of existing regulations and a continued high risk to vultures. Availability of meloxicam increased in all countries and was the most common veterinary NSAID in Nepal (89.9% in 2017). Although the most widely available NSAID in India in 2017, meloxicam accounted for only 32% of products offered for sale. In Bangladesh, meloxicam was less commonly available than the vulture-toxic NSAID ketoprofen (28% and 66%, respectively, in 2018), despite the partial government ban on ketoprofen in 2016. Eleven different NSAIDs were recorded, several of which are known or suspected to be toxic to vultures. Conservation priorities should include awareness raising, stricter implementation of current bans, bans on other vulture-toxic veterinary NSAIDs, especially aceclofenac and nimesulide, and safety-testing of other NSAIDs on Gyps vultures to identify safe and toxic drugs.

High mortality by electrocution has been suggested to be the main factor behind the reduction of several birds of prey populations across the world. Almost nothing is known, however, about the impact of power lines on this group of birds in the Neotropical Region. Here we estimate electrocution rates for birds on power lines covering both arid and semiarid biomes of central Argentina. We conducted six bi-monthly power line and raptor surveys throughout 355 km of lines and roads covering an area of approximately 12,000 km2. We described the structural design of 3,118 surveyed electricity pylons. We found 34 electrocuted individuals of four bird families that constitute an annual bird electrocution rate of 0.011 bird/pylon/year. Bird electrocution occurred mostly on concrete pylons with jumpers above the cross-arm. Larger birds of prey had a higher electrocution rate than smaller species. The Crowned Solitary Eagle Buteogallus coronatus was disproportionately affected by this mortality source when compared with its low population density. Electrocution incidents occurred mostly in a few electric pylon designs that represent only 10.2 % of the power pylons monitored in the study area. Therefore, the change or modification of a small fraction of pylons would almost eliminate bird electrocution incidents in our study area. Our results prove that electrocution is a relevant cause of mortality for Crowned Solitary Eagles and urgent mitigating actions are needed to reduce this mortality factor.

Declines in populations of the Critically Endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper Calidris pygmaeus have been rapid, with the breeding population now perhaps numbering fewer than 120 pairs. The reasons for this decline remain unresolved. Whilst there is evidence that hunting in wintering areas is an important factor, loss of suitable habitat on passage and wintering areas is also of concern. While some key sites for the species are already documented, many of their wintering locations are described here for the first time. Their wintering range primarily stretches from Bangladesh to China. Comprehensive surveys of potential Spoon-billed Sandpiper wintering sites from 2005 to 2013 showed a wide distribution with three key concentrations in Myanmar and Bangladesh, but also regular sites in China, Vietnam and Thailand. The identification of all important non-breeding sites remains of high priority for the conservation of the species. Here, we present the results of field surveys of wintering Spoon-billed Sandpipers that took place in six countries between 2005 and 2013 and present species distribution models which map the potential wintering areas. These include known and currently unrecognised wintering locations. Our maximum entropy model did not identify any new extensive candidate areas within the winter distribution, suggesting that most key sites are already known, but it did identify small sites on the coast of eastern Bangladesh, western Myanmar, and the Guangxi and Guangdong regions of China that may merit further investigation. As no extensive areas of new potential habitat were identified, we suggest that the priorities for the conservation of this species are habitat protection in important wintering and passage areas and reducing hunting pressure on birds at these sites.

The last remaining population of the Crested Ibis Nipponia nippon in the wild was studied in the Qinling Mountains, Yangxian County, Shaanxi Province, central China, over 24 breeding seasons with particular attention being paid to the nesting behaviour and breeding success. The average clutch size varied significantly among years (2.84 ± 0.77; n = 271), suggesting that food abundance, which was distinct in different areas, was indeed a limiting factor. The mean hatching success was 80.2%, and ranged from 35.7% to 100%. Egg losses were due to three reasons: infertility or the eggs being addled, predation, and human disturbance. Three reasons accounting for chick death were highlighted: shortage of food, predation, and disturbance from local inhabitants. However, the overall breeding success of the Crested Ibis, which averaged 65.6%, was much higher than that of many nidicolous birds and was clearly dependent not only on the stability of pair maintenance but also on human conservation and protection measures. The relatively higher proportion of unsuccessful nests at altitudes between 500–700 m and 701–900 m was linked with the more frequent human activities, predation and lower stability of nest-trees in such areas. The fact that there was no significant variation in the number of successful nests or breeding success across different altitudinal zones demonstrated that, to a large degree, habitats used by the Crested Ibis were now suitable for breeding. The rapid increase in the species' numbers in recent years has been achieved through effective protection measures, including legislation, management of population and habitat, and regular surveys and monitoring. A reintroduction programme has been put into effect, protecting the population from a chance catastrophe such as communicable diseases within its limited range.

Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres is endemic to southern Africa and is globally threatened. Colonies in Botswana comprise part of one of the two core breeding areas in the species's range, and very little has previously been published about them. Ground censusing of 11 Cape Vulture sites in Botswana was undertaken from 1992 to 1999, continuing a monitoring programme initiated by the authors in 1984. Survey methods and census procedures are documented. The potential Cape Vulture breeding population in Botswana is estimated to be about 600 pairs, comprising at least 100 pairs at Mannyelanong in the south-east and about 500 pairs in eastern Botswana. This represents an increase from previous estimates, and reflects improved census techniques rather than an increase in population size. The mean turnover rate of nest site usage from one year to the next averaged 21% at Mannyelanong, and was about 26% at Manong Yeng in eastern Botswana. Annual productivity of nest sites increased with the number of years the site had been occupied. Over the eight years of study eggs were laid in at least 436 of 477 nests (91.4%) at Mannyelanong; chicks survived to mid season (60–80 days old) in 327 nests (75% of eggs laid), and fledged (best estimate) in 248 nests (56.9% of eggs laid and 52% of pairs attempting to breed). In eastern Botswana eggs were laid in at least 1,825 of 2,101 nests (86.9%); chicks survived to mid season in 1,272 nests (69.7% of eggs laid). Two seasons have been excluded for eastern Botswana (1994 and 1995) due to incomplete data, and breeding success can be estimated only from 1997 to 1999: of 990 eggs laid out of 1,108 nests, chicks fledged in 384 nests (38.8% of eggs laid and 34.6% of pairs attempting to breed). The eastern Botswana breeding population remains in a state of flux following the collapse of a primary colony that was the country's Cape Vulture stronghold. Conservation concerns and the vulnerability of Cape Vulture sites are discussed.

We developed a habitat suitability model for wintering populations of the Asian Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis macqueenii in Iran and determined environmental variables affecting its occurrence. Our results indicate that various patches in central, western and eastern Iran provide the most suitable habitats for the Houbara. Annual precipitation, slope and distance to croplands were the most important variables for predicting Houbara occurrence. We also determined the effects future climate changes on the distribution of the Houbara in Iran. Results showed that suitable habitats for the wintering Houbara will increase in Iran, but will also considerably shift under future climatic conditions. The distribution maps that we present for the present and future climatic conditions can have important implications for the conservation and management of Houbara populations in Iran.