Breeding dispersal subsequent to nest failure is hypothesised to be a behavioural response to danger posed by nest predators. We used histories and locations of male and female Snowy Plover Charadrius nivosus nests in northern California over a 10-year period to examine effects of nest fate, mate fidelity, residency, predator exclosures, and age on dispersal distance. Within years, females moved a median distance of 2.2 km after changing mates; males moved a median of 0.9 km. Between years, plovers moved the shortest distances when they retained a mate from the prior year and were successful in hatching eggs (males = 0.2 km, females = 0.3 km). Both females (13.0 km) and males (2.6 km) dispersed farther when mate change coincided with nest failure in the prior year. The observation that most plovers did not disperse far enough to move away from sites where predators are abundant and have strong effects on plover reproductive success suggests that effective predator management will be challenging.

A high proportion of island birds are threatened with extinction as a result of their vulnerability to introduced predators, habitat destruction, and fragmentation/isolation effects. In order to conserve island species effectively, it is necessary to disentangle these effects on distribution and abundance. We attempt to do this for the nine native passerines in the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, using a database of presence/absence on 59 offshore islands in the archipelago, linked to data for each island on mammal presence, habitat modification, and isolation. Falklands native passerines are of considerable conservation importance, comprising one endemic globally threatened species, several endemic subspecies, and several restricted range species. Presence of rats on islands was by far the most important predictor of passerine presence, overriding the effect of habitat modifications. The globally threatened endemic Cobb's Wren Troglodytes cobbi was absent from all islands containing rats. Some species were more likely, and others less likely to occur on islands where tussac Poa flabellata grassland had been destroyed by grazing. The former species were primarily those adapted to dwarf-heath vegetation, and/or that thrive around human settlements. Island size and isolation were important predictors of occurrence for several bird species. The analyses show that, if vegetation restoration in the Falklands is to meet conservation aims, then it should be accompanied by introduced mammal control. Secondly, they indicate that biogeographical effects on bird distribution among islands in the Falklands are important, and need to be considered when assessing the conservation status of species, and when considering conservation action.

The widespread decline of farmland birds is a major issue of biological conservation in European countries. The Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica is a flagship species for farmland bird conservation owing to its aesthetic and cultural value and to the sharp decline observed in several populations. Based on a long-term monitoring project of a population in a protected area of Northern Italy, we documented a dramatic decline of 56.6% between 1999 and 2011, corresponding to a decrease of 6.59% each year. We also showed that colonies were on average larger in farms with livestock than those without livestock, and that colony size increased with increasing extent of hayfields within 200 m from the colony in farms without livestock, but not in those with livestock. Hayfield extent at greater distances did not influence population size or trend. Cessation of livestock farming therefore determined a decline in local colonies, but this decline may be buffered by an increase in hayfield extent within 200 m from the farm. However, variation in the ecological features of breeding sites explained only a fraction of the observed population decline, suggesting that ecological conditions during migration and wintering may be crucial in affecting population trends. Mean hatching date of first broods advanced in recent years, but less so in farms with, than without, livestock. Independently of year, mean hatching date advanced more in farms with greater extent of hayfields within 200 m of the colony. Reproductive success, measured as the mean number of fledged offspring per nest, declined significantly with hatching date, but was not affected by hayfield extent. Conversely, nestling quality, in terms of body mass and feather development, improved with increasing extent of hayfields around the colony, particularly in late-hatched first clutches. Our findings suggest that conservation strategies for this declining species should include both the maintenance of livestock farming and the enlargement of hayfields close to breeding colonies, particularly in farms where livestock farming has ceased.

The critically endangered Sichuan Hill-partridge Arborophila rufipectus occupies a restricted range in south-central China. Field surveys within this range were undertaken using line transects in 1996 and 1997. Calling males were recorded from nine subtropical forest tracts within an area totalling 1,793 km2 and consisting of primary, natural secondary and replanted broadleaf forest between 1,100 and 2,235 m elevation. The only sightings obtained were in primary forest. The mean density of calling males estimated from data collected during transect surveys was 0.48 ± 0.06 and 0.24 ± 0.16 calling birds km−2 in 1996 and 1997 respectively. There was no difference in density estimates for calling males between primary forest and secondary/replanted broadleaf forest. The principal threat to the continued survival of the species is clear-felling of primary forest, but clear-felled areas are often replanted with native broadleaf trees and records of Sichuan Hill-partridge calls in such plantations offers hope for its future survival. Forest management should be modified to make forestry practices more sympathetic to the conservation of the Sichuan Hill-partridge.

In this study we demonstrate that non-breeding adult Lesser White-fronted Geese Anser erythropus from the Fennoscandian breeding population may undertake long-distance moult migration eastwards. Of three individuals equipped with satellite transmitters at a spring staging site in northern Norway, two migrated to moulting sites in the area of Kolgujev Island and Kanin Peninsula, while the third headed towards the Taimyr Peninsula, all in northern Russia. The first leg of the moult migration route for non-breeders was between Finnmark, Norway and the Kanin Peninsula area in north-western Russia, a similar route to that taken on autumn migration by Fennoscandian Lesser White-fronted Geese that had bred successfully. After the moulting period, one of the individuals followed a south-western route to Poland and Germany, where it spent the first part of the winter. The satellite signals from the other two geese ceased abruptly in early autumn, indicating that the birds may have been illegally shot in Russia. Locating new moulting and migration stopover sites is of crucial importance for the conservation of the critically endangered Fennoscandian subpopulation of this species.

Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus is classed as globally Vulnerable, based on the only available population estimate, made in 1977, of 2,000–2,800 pairs. Surveys for breeding Spoon-billed Sandpipers were carried out in summer 2000 on the Anadyr estuary coast, the Chukotka autonomous region, Russia. Although six new breeding sites were found, only 16–17 breeding males/pairs were recorded on the northern coast of the Anadyr estuary and five males/pairs on the southern coast and more southerly lagoons. These numbers were much lower than expected, and the species was not recorded in several apparently suitable areas. Four formerly known breeding sites held only one displaying male between them. At no site was there evidence of an increasing or stable local population. Together with other indicative data these suggest a sharp decline in the population of Spoon-billed Sandpiper. The previous population size estimate obviously requires updating, both because there were some incorrect assumptions in the calculations made for the first population estimate, and also due to a recent population decline. It is likely that the current population numbers under 1,000 breeding pairs. Given that the population of this species may be substantially lower than the only previous estimate, and the evidence for a possible rapid decline in its population described in this paper, it is recommended that its IUCN status is changed from Vulnerable to Endangered. No reasons for the apparent rapid rate of decline are evident within the breeding range. “Bottle-necks” should be looked for at migration sites or wintering grounds, but currently, monitoring of the population is only possible on the breeding grounds.

Source-sink dynamics are easily overlooked when formulating recovery objectives for threatened species. This could lead to unrealistic criteria imposed on sink populations, which in turn might restrict an entire metapopulation from being delisted. Therefore, an understanding of the viability of subpopulations within the context of a metapopulation is needed to develop appropriate recovery objectives. Consequently, we used 11 years of mark-recapture, productivity, and movement data to analyse the viability of a small, geographically isolated population of the Snowy Plover Charadrius nivosus, a shorebird listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Simulations confirmed that the focal population in northern California is a sink that relies upon immigrants from neighbouring populations. Furthermore, these source populations will increase within the next 50 years and are likely to achieve the delisting requirements. However, the northern California population is unlikely to reach the delisting criteria given the current vital rate estimations. Management scenarios demonstrated that lethal predator removal and reducing human disturbance facilitate population recovery and may partially alleviate the reliance upon immigration. However, the use of nest exclosures reduced population growth because they are known to compromise adult survival. These results highlight the importance of maintaining viable source populations and re-evaluating the recovery objectives of metapopulations with active sinks.

Fragmentation of continuous habitat blocks into small, isolated patches may cause gradual replacement of habitat specialists by generalists and edge-dwelling species, thereby altering trophic interactions within communities. When fragmentation progressively increases the edge-to-interior ratio of forest remnants, forest birds are typically exposed to higher levels of nest predation, especially so near forest edges. However, the strength and direction of this ‘edge effect on nest predation’ may vary with predator communities, which in turn can be affected by habitat type, landscape structure and geographical location. We studied avian nest predation in two isolated forest fragments in the Taita Hills of southeast Kenya, where small mammals, rather than birds, dominate predator communities. The use of artificial ground nests allowed us to reduce variation in laying date and microhabitat use, which are known to affect predation on natural nest in the study area. Predation rates did not increase near the forest boundary, but instead, were higher in the forest interior of one of the fragments. Such inverse edge effects may be caused by forest-dependent small mammals or snakes that can remove bird eggs. Although inverse edge effects may be more common in East African tropical forests than previously thought, and should therefore be taken into account when drafting conservation plans, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Further study of the population dynamics of small mammals and snakes, and their relative impact on nest predation in fragmented habitats, is therefore required.

The biodiversity and naturalness of forests that cover stream valleys in submontane areas have not been investigated as intensively as riparian forests along large lowland rivers. In this study we compared data on total bird assemblages and on selected indicator species detected in forests along submontane stream valleys (‘Vall’) with those detected in forests covering submontane slopes and tops in the foothills (‘Hill’) of the Western Carpathians, considering also environmental characteristics of the studied locations. The aim of this study was to verify the hypothesis that forests along submontane stream valleys harbour significantly richer and more diverse bird communities and that they are an important habitat for rare and threatened species. We found that the species richness, abundance of birds and bird diversity were almost twice as high in ‘Vall’ than in ‘Hill’ locations and that indicator species mostly or exclusively inhabit ‘Vall’ locations. Moreover, species diversity was highly and positively correlated with higher tree species diversity and a higher amount of large trees and dead wood, but negatively correlated with logging intensity. The results of our study confirmed that forested river valleys in submontane areas play an important role as refugia both for rare and endangered bird species as well as for the whole bird assemblage. This study is the first to present an assessment of this type of habitat for birds in the Western Carpathians. Forests along submontane stream valleys, if protected or unmanaged, could be treated as reference areas for nature and biodiversity conservation.

Migration routes used by Nearctic migrant birds can cover great distances; they also differ among species, within species, and between years and seasons. As a result, migration routes for an entire migratory avifauna can encompass broad geographic areas, making it impossible to protect continuous stretches of habitat sufficient to connect the wintering and breeding grounds for most species. Consequently, ways to enhance habitats converted for human use (i.e. for pasture, crop cultivation, human settlement) as stopover sites for migrants are especially important. Shelterbelts around pastures and fields, if planted with species targeted to support migrant (and resident) bird species that naturally occupy mature forest habitats and that are at least partially frugivorous, could be a powerful enhancement tool for such species, if the birds will enter the converted areas to feed. I tested this approach for Nearctic migrant birds during the spring migration through an area in Chiapas, Mexico. Mature forest tree species whose fruits are eaten by birds were surveyed. Based on life form, crop size and fruit characteristics, I selected three tree species for study: Cymbopetalum mayanum (Annonaceae), Bursera simaruba (Burseraceae) and Trophis racemosa (Moraceae). I compared the use of fruits of these species by migrants and residents in forest with their use of the fruits of isolated individuals of the same species in pasture and cropland. All three plant species were useful for enhancing converted habitats for forest-occupying spring migrants, although species differed in the degree to which they entered disturbed areas to feed on the fruits. These tree species could probably enhance habitats for migrants at sites throughout the natural geographic ranges of the plants; in other geographic areas for other target bird groups, other tree species might be more appropriate.

The Mariana Crow Corvus kubaryi is a Critically Endangered species found only on the island of Rota, Northern Mariana Islands. It was extirpated from the neighbouring island of Guam by the introduced brown tree snake Boiga irregularis and the Rota population has been in decline since at least 1995. We identified only 60 pairs present on Rota in 2007 compared with an estimated 117 pairs in 1998, a decline of nearly 50% in nine years. The decline may be linked to proximity to human activities, though more data are needed. We monitored 204 crow nests between the 1996 and 2009 breeding seasons. Crows initiate clutches between August and April. The overall estimate of nest success was 25.7% (n = 204). On average 49% of pairs produced at least one fledgling per season. The mean number of fledglings per pair per year is 0.66. Mean clutch size was 2.6 (n = 82), mean number of nestlings was 1.4 (n = 106), and mean number of fledglings per nest was 1.3 (n = 68). Daily survival rates declined in later years, and increased during the nest cycle. The number of pairs with successful nests did not change during the study period, nor did the number of fledglings per pair. Predation appeared to be the primary cause of nest failure. The breeding season lasted around nine months and pairs re-nested after failure. Predation of adults and juveniles by cats, combined with possible inbreeding depression, habitat disturbance and human persecution appear to be the cause of decline of the Mariana Crow. We strongly recommend a programme of invasive predator control, habitat maintenance, and captive rearing to ensure the species’ survival.

Seabird mortality in longline fisheries is believed to be an important cause of the reductions in many seabird populations worldwide, and results in reduced fishing efficiency and economic losses for fishing companies. We estimated the economic cost of not using seabird bycatch deterrents in Argentinean longline fisheries, with the intention of encouraging adoption of mitigation measures in those fisheries. We conducted the study in the Argentine ling Genypterus blacodes and Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides fisheries from 2001 to 2006 on three fishing vessels. Data on the incidence of seabird bycatch were collected by seabird observers specially trained in seabird identification and data on the catch rates of target species, cost of bait and fish were provided by the fishing company, supervised by Federal Inspectors from the Provincial Fisheries Agency. To estimate the bait loss, we set lines both with and without the use of deterrents (streamer lines, night setting and strategic discharge of offal) in both fisheries. Seabird bycatch varies temporally and geographically, so to estimate economic losses using deterrents in each fishery, we used different bycatch rates/1000 hooks registered for different periods and fishing areas. Bycatch rates in the absence of deterrents were two birds/1000 hooks and 1.53 birds/1000 hooks for the Patagonian toothfish and ling fisheries, respectively. These rates equate to the loss of more than 1.5 and 2 million dollars over a 10 year period for each fishery. When estimations are made with lower mortality rates, economic losses declined abruptly and were in the order of hundreds of dollars/fishing trip, for the same period of time. Results show that using deterrents, long term profits for the fishing company increase at a considerably high rate (the decrease in monetary loss is an order of magnitude), and the mortality of seabirds decreases by the same proportion (CPUE of seabirds decreases from tens of thousands to a few hundred). In these fisheries, the use of mitigation measures that reduce bait loss and seabird mortality represents a win-win situation with benefits to conservation and fishing companies.

With the combination of worldwide landscape changes and the uncertainty about the impact on species abundance and distribution, the value of spatio-temporal modelling tools is increasingly obvious. The Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax breeds on low-intensity arable cultivation and pastoral land and is currently threatened by diverse landscape modifications. The aim of this research was to predict Little Bustard population trends in the face of realistic scenarios of land use and infrastructure changes, applying a recently developed spatially explicit framework, based on the stochastic dynamic methodology (StDM). The application of this approach provided some basis to analyse the responses of breeding populations’ spatial distribution and abundance to the scenarios implemented. Since some of these scenarios represent local and/or regional risks to the viability of Little Bustard breeding populations, the results obtained demonstrate the potential of the proposed framework for landscape planning in the scope of the conservation of this threatened species. This approach also provides a promising baseline to support ecological risk assessments for other species, derived from ecological models with increased predictive power and intuitiveness to decision makers and environmental managers.

The ability of birds to move through the landscape is a key parameter for ecological and conservation studies. We studied bird movements among natural vegetation patches surrounded by native grassland and tested the effect of inter-patch distance on bird movements/hour and assessed the distances travelled for species of different body mass. We made observations of 1,138 bird movements among 11 forest patches and banded 368 birds obtaining 69 recaptures (42 recaptures in the same patch where the birds were banded and 27 recaptures in other patches). We used seven patches as observation points and capture sites in the Pantanal wetland, Brazil during one year. Movements/hour decreased significantly with inter-patch distance. Median or maximum distance travelled increased significantly with body mass. Small-bodied Passeriformes, however, did not increase the distance travelled with body mass, since they seldom moved more than 286 m. The majority of forest dependent or semi-dependent birds seem able to adapt to natural fragmented landscapes. However, small forest patches may be inappropriate habitat for many large-bodied species, and it is more difficult for small-bodied species to use more isolated forest patches. Thus, size and spatial arrangement of habitat patches may act as a filter in which large and close fragments seem to protect the highest number of bird species. The findings of this study indicate that stepping stones provide a viable alternative to continuous biological corridors if the latter are not available. However, the type of species in an area and the size and distance between vegetation patches are all critical factors that must be considered in projects that aim to use forest patches as stepping stones to increase or maintain local bird biodiversity.

From 5 May 2003 to early June 2005, nest site selection of Black-necked Cranes Grus nigricollis was studied at the Ruoergai Wetland Nature Reserve (RWNR), an important breeding area for the species in China. Results showed that the crane nests only in wetland environments, including lake, swamp and river microhabitats. However, the bird showed different selection patterns in these microhabitats. According to the Ivelev selectivity index (S.I.), cranes preferred lakes and avoided swampy areas, while they used river areas in proportion to their availability. Factors associated with the selection of nest sites included water body size, distance to water, water depth and the level of nest concealment. Nest size was a function of the microhabitat used for nesting; nests were largest in lakes, and similarly-sized in swamp and river habitats. A certain water depth was a prerequisite for nest site selection (mean = 31.1 cm), but no differences were found among different microhabitats. Compared with nests found in Qinghai, Tibet, and Ladakh, nests in Ruoergai Wetland were smaller, but water depth near nesting sites was higher (mean = 31.1 cm vs 18.2 cm). Different plant communities, climate and disturbance are likely to be related to these differences. Conservation efforts should focus on the protection of existing lakes, minimizing disturbance impacts and maintaining small patches (i.e. 100 m2 water bodies) of swamp areas as important buffer zones. In the future, restoration of wetlands to decrease fragmentation, and reduction of habitat degradation are advocated for effective conservation of this species.

Jankowski's Bunting Emberiza jankowskii is endemic to China, Russia and Northern Korea, and was listed as a ‘Vulnerable’ species. The population in Dagang Forestry of western Jilin is one of the small remaining discrete breeding populations in the species' range. Very little information on the nesting biology and population dynamics has previously been published. We studied the nesting biology from 1999 to 2002 and population dynamics of the bunting from 1999 to 2006 (except 2003). A total of 74 nesting attempts were monitored. Jankowski's Bunting breeding season began in late April and usually ended in late July. Both sexes participated in nest-building, feeding young and defending the nest. Mean full clutch size for three years combined was 5.26 ± 0.76 eggs, and ranged from four to seven. Clutch size decreased with nest-initiation date. Mean hatching rate was 41.2%. Overall probability of Mayfield nest success to fledging was low for the three years, averaging 0.218 ± 0.007. The factors leading to low nest success include nest parasitization, nest predation, human activities and nest abandonment. Low survival of Jankowski's Bunting nests may be a factor in declining populations and the slow recovery of populations because of low recruitment at the population and the individual level. The population of Jankowski's Bunting in the Dagang Forestry grassland was small and declined dramatically from 1999 to 2006. The main threat is habitat loss and fragmentation due to agriculture, tree planting and housing following human colonization of the region. The habitat has been reduced in extent by c. 70% since the 1960s. In addition, grazing by domestic livestock dramatically destroyed their preferred vegetation. Furthermore, the restriction to several small, discrete sites makes the bunting inherently vulnerable to catastrophic and stochastic events that can eliminate subpopulations. Jankowski's bunting is one of the most threatened species in China and faces an unpredictable future. Maintaining the structure and general composition of remaining Jankowski's Bunting nesting habitat is important to ensure continued presence of this species in western Jilin and worldwide.

Ornithological surveys were carried out in the remnant forests of the island of Negros, in the central Philippines, over five weeks in the summer of 1991. From this work it is concluded that, without the implementation of immediate conservation measures, the global extinction of four bird species is likely to occur in the near future. These are Negros Fruit-dove Ptilinopus arcanus, Negros Bleeding-heart Gallicolumba keayi, Writhed-billed Hornbill Aceros waldeni and White-throated Jungle-flycatcher Khinomyias albi-gularis. Another four species restricted to the lowlands of Negros and the adjacent island of Panay, Visayan Tarictic Hornbill Penelopides panini, White-winged Cuckoo-shrike Cora-cina ostenta, Flame-templed Babbler Stachyris speciosa and Visayan Flowerpecker Dicaeum (australe) haematostictum, must be considered under extreme threat, and the endemic Negros Striped-babbler Stachyris nigrorum is under considerable pressure. A further twelve species listed as globally threatened are also in serious danger of extinction on Negros. This paper details the results of fieldwork and presents our conclusions and suggestions for conservation, which must include the direct preservation of the last fragments of lowland forest on the island.

Recent advances in bird tracking technologies are revealing that migratory birds use temporal staging sites other than breeding and wintering areas, and these areas deserve conservation efforts. Eleonora’s Falcon Falco eleonorae is a long-distance migratory raptor that breeds colonially on islands and is considered a priority species for conservation. Anecdotal observations indicate that during the pre-breeding period, Eleonora’s Falcons stay in inland areas far away from the colonies, but, to date there are no detailed data concerning the connectivity between these areas and breeding colonies. Using satellite telemetry, we analysed data from four summering events belonging to three individuals breeding in two colonies in the Western Mediterranean (Spain). All of them made inland movements in areas up to c.400 km distant from the respective breeding colonies, visiting several habitats, from forests to arable lands, probably taking advantage of high densities of insects. Perturbations occurring in these areas could threaten Eleonora’s Falcons with serious consequences at the population level. We suggest that conservation measures implemented at breeding and wintering grounds may not suffice and that temporary staging areas should be identified at a larger scale and deserve protection as well.

The White-winged Snowfinch Montifringilla nivalis nivalis is assumed to be highly threatened by climate change, but this high elevation species has been little studied and the current breeding distribution is accurately known only for a minor portion of its range. Here, we provide a detailed and spatially explicit identification of the potentially suitable breeding areas for the Snowfinch. We modelled suitable areas in Europe and compared them with the currently known distribution. We built a distribution model using 14,574 records obtained during the breeding period that integrated climatic, topographic and land-cover variables, working at a 2-km spatial resolution with MaxEnt. The model performed well and was very robust; average annual temperature was the most important occurrence predictor (optimum between c.-3°C and 0°; unsuitable conditions below -10° and above 5°). The current European breeding range estimated by BirdLife International was almost three times greater than that classified as potentially suitable by our model. Discrepancies between our model and the distribution estimated by BirdLife International were particularly evident in eastern Europe, where the species is poorly monitored. Southern populations are likely more isolated and at major risk because of global warming. These differences have important implications for the supposed national responsibility for conservation of the species and highlight the need for new investigations on the species in the eastern part of its European range.

Hunting and its associated management have significant costs and benefits for biodiversity conservation, which makes this socio-economic activity highly controversial at both international and regional levels. We investigated relationships between management for small game species (mainly Red-legged Partridges Alectoris rufa and rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus) and both abundance and richness of farmland and scrubland songbirds, raptors and ground-nesting birds, and on the abundance of three species of conservation concern (Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax, Eurasian Thick-knee Burhinus oedicnemus and Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus) in southern Portugal farmland. We compared 12 game estates and 12 matching areas with similar sizes and land uses but no game management. Richness and abundance were estimated from fixed point counts, and were related to game regime (managed or unmanaged), habitat characteristics and census period. Our results showed that game management was associated, albeit weakly, with higher abundance of raptors and ground-nesting birds, but no relationship (either positive or negative) was found for other guilds and species. Habitat was generally the most important factor explaining bird species richness and abundance. Our results suggest possibilities for promoting management systems that could maximize both hunting sustainability and conservation value of managed areas, particularly when management helps to improve or maintain beneficial habitats or practices for farmland birds.