Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T17:30:20.384Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Matrilineal inheritance: New theory and analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

John Hartung
John Hartung
Affiliation:
Department of Anesthesiology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In most cultures, extramarital sex is highly restricted for women. In most of those cultures, men transfer wealth to their own sons (patrilineal inheritance). In some cultures extramarital sex is not highly restricted for women, and in most of those cultures, men transfer wealth to their sisters' sons (matrilineal inheritance). Inheritance to sisters' sons ensures a man's biological relatedness to his heirs, and matrilineal inheritance has been posited as a male accommodation to cuckoldry—a paternity strategy—at least since the 15th century. However, longitudinal analysis of the cumulative effect of female extramarital sex indicates that matrilineal inheritance is most advantageous for women and would be more accurately considered a grandmaternity strategy. That is, if the probability that men's putative children are their biological children (ρ = probability of paternity) is less than 1, the probabilistic degree of relatedness between a female and her matrilineal heirs is higher than her corresponding relatedness to her patrilineal heirs. The same holds true for men only if ρ is very low (< 0.46). The upshot is that for moderate levels of female extramarital sex, matrilineal inheritance, relative to patrilineal inheritance, is highly advantageous for women and disadvantageous for men. Consideration of female variance in reproductive success beyond the first generation, and of a man's network of obligation to the inclusive fitness of his relatives, suggests that although the establishment of matrilineal inheritance may require extremely high levels of female extramarital sex, once established, it is likely to be maintained at levels of ρ that reasonably characterize many societies in the ethnographic record. New analysis of previously published data shows a strong association between matrilineal inheritance and moderate to low probability of paternity, and an even stronger relationship between patrilineal inheritance and high probability of paternity.

Keywords

cultural evolutionkin selectionmatrilineal inheritanceparental investmentpaternityreproductive strategysex differencessexual selectionsociobiology
Type
Target article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 8 , Issue 4 , December 1985 , pp. 661 - 670
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1985

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aberle, D. (1961) Matrilineal descent in cross-cultural perspective. In: Matrilineal kinship, ed. Schneider, D. & Gough, K.. University of California Press. [MVF, tarJH, MBM]Google Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1974) The evolution of social behavior. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5:325–83. [MVF, taJH, WMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, R. D. (1979) Darwinism and human affairs. University of Washington Press. [MVF, rJH, WMS]Google Scholar
Arensberg, C. & Kimball, S. T. (1940) Family and community in Ireland. Harvard University Press. [RF]Google Scholar
Avitable, M. & Hartung, J. (in preparation) Female variance beyond the first generation. [rJH]Google Scholar
Bachoffen, J. J. (1861) Das mutterrecht. Beno Schwabe. [taJH, CSL]Google Scholar
Barbosa, D. (1866) 1st ed. 1500. East Africa and Malabar. H. E. J. Stanley. [taJH, CSL]Google Scholar
Barkow, J. H. (1984) The distance between genes and culture. Journal of Anthropological Research 40:367–79. [JAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barth, F. (1967) On the study of social change. American Anthropologist 69:661–69. [MVF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, P. G. (1982) Behavioural development and evolutionary processes. In: Current problems in sociobiology, ed. King's College Sociobiology Group. Cambridge University Press. [ISB]Google Scholar
Bell, A. P. & Weinberg, M. S. (1978) Homosexualities. Simon and Schuster. [JAK]Google Scholar
Betzig, L. L. (1982) Despotism and differential reproduction: A cross-cultural correlation of conflict asymmetry, hierarchy, and degree of polygyny. Ethology and Sociobiology 3:209–21. [MBM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broude, G. & Greene, S. J. (1976) Cross-cultural codes on twenty sexual attitudes and practices. Ethnology 15:409–29. [tarJH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1984) Evolutionary biology and personality psychology: Toward a conception of human nature and individual differences. American Psychologist 39:1135–47. [DMB]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. & Bodmer, W. F. (1971) The genetics of human populations. W. G. Freeman. [MBM]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. (1982) Sociodemographic attributes of nepotism in tribal populations: Man the rule-breaker. In: Current problems in sociobiology, ed. King's College Sociobiology Group. Cambridge University Press. [NWT]Google Scholar
Chagnon, N. A. & Hugos, P. E. Jr (1979) Kin selection and conflict: An analysis of a Yanomamo ax fight. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [MBM]Google Scholar
Charlesworth, B. (1980) Evolution in age-structured populations. Cambridge University Press. [PTE]Google Scholar
de Charlevoix, P. (1744) Journal of a voyage to North America. University Microfilms Reprint (1966). [taJH, CSL]Google Scholar
Clarke, E. (1957) My mother who fathered me. Allen and Unwin. [MVF]Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1984) Sons and daughters. Nature 298:11–13. [rJH, MBM]Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., Albon, S. D. & Guiness, F. E. (1984) Maternal dominance, breeding success and birth sex ratios in red deer. Nature 308:358–60. [MBM]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colson, E. (1961) Plateau Tonga. In: Matrilineal kinship, ed. Schneider, D. & Cough, K.. University of California Press. [rJH]Google Scholar
Daly, M., Wilson, M. & Weghorst, S. J. (1982) Male sexual jealousy. Ethology and Sociobiology 3:11–27. [taJH, JAK]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darwin, C. (1871) The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. A. L. Burt. [NWT]Google Scholar
Diamond, J. (1985) Everything else you've always wanted to know about sex. Discover 6(4):70–82. (DRV]Google Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1981) Paternal confidence and dowry competition: A biocultural analysis of purdah. In: Natural selection and social behavior, ed. Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W.. Chiron Press. [MVF, taJH, JAK]Google Scholar
Dickemann, M. (1982) Comment on J. Hartung: Polygyny and inheritance of wealth. Current Anthropology 23:8–9. [JAK]Google Scholar
Douglas, M. (1969) Is matriliny doomed in Africa? In: Man in Africa, ed. Douglas, M.. Oxford University Press. [taJH]Google Scholar
Dyson-Hudson, R. & Smith, E. A. (1978) Human territoriality: An ecological reassessment. American Anthropologist 80:21–41. [MVF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, P. T. (1983) Stochastic selection and life history theory. Paper presented at the Conference on the Application of Life History Models to Human Development, University of California, Los Angeles. [PTE]Google Scholar
Essock-Vitale, S. M. & McGuire, M. T. (in press) Women's lives viewed from an evolutionary perspective: 1. Sexual history, reproductive success, and demographic characteristics of a random sample of American women. Ethology and Sociobiology. [SMEV, rJH]Google Scholar
Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1951) Kinship and marriage among the Nuer. Oxford University Press. [RF]Google Scholar
Fisher, R. A. (1958) The genetical theory of natural selection. Dover. [JAK]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1981) Uterine vs. agnatic kinship variability and associated cousin marriage preferences: An evolutionary biological analysis. In: Natural selection and social behavior, ed. MVF, Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W.. Chiron Press. [CB, MVF, tarJH, WMS]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1983a) Patterns of interaction among kin in a Trinidadian village. Paper persented at the 1983 American Anthropological Association meetings, Chicago. [MVF]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1983b) Resources, mating, and kinship: The behavioral ecology of a Trinidadian village. Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University. [MVF]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1984a) Correlates of reproductive success in a Trinidadian village. Paper presented at the 1984 American Association of Physical Anthropology meetings, Philadelphia. [MVF]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. (1984b) Mate guarding and daughter guarding in a Trinidadian village. Paper presented at the 1984 American Anthropological Association meetings, Denver. [MVF]Google Scholar
Flinn, M. V. & Alexander, R. D. (1982) Culture theory: The developing synthesis from biology. Human Ecology 10:383–400. [MVF]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flinn, M. V. & Low, B. S. (1985) Resource distribution, social competition, and mating patterns in human societies. In: Ecological correlates of social behavior, ed. Rubenstein, D. & Wrangham, R.. Princeton University Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Fortes, M. (1950). The Ashanti. In: African systems of kinship and marriage, ed. Radclifie-Brown, A. R. & Forde, D.. Oxford University Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Fox, R. (1967a) The Keresan bridge: A problem in Pueblo ethnology. Athlone Press of the University of London. [RF]Google Scholar
Fox, R. (1967b) Kinship and marriage: An anthropological perspective. Penguin Books. [RF]Google Scholar
Fox, R. (1978) The Tory Islanders: A people of the Celtic fringe. Cambridge University Press. [RF]Google Scholar
Fox, R. (1982) Les conditions de l'evolution sexuelle. In: Sexualiés occidentales, ed. Ariès, P. & Béjin, A.. Editions du Seuil. [RF]Google Scholar
Fox, R. (1983) The red lamp of incest: An enquiry into the origins of mind and society. University of Notre Dame Press. [RF, taJH ]Google Scholar
Fuller, C. J. (1976) The Nayars today. Cambridge University Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Gamst, F. (1974) Peasants in complex society. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. [CSL]Google Scholar
Caulin, J. C. & Schlegel, A. (1980) Paternal confidence and paternal investment: A cross cultural test of a sociobiological hypothesis. Ethology and Sociobiology 1:301–9. [MVF, taJH]Google Scholar
Goody, J. (1976) Production and reproduction. Cambridge University Press. [RF, JAK, CSL]Google Scholar
Coquet, A. Y. (1761) The origin of laws, etc. AMS Press Reprint (1976). [taJH]Google Scholar
Gough, K. (1961a) Central Kerala Nayars. In: Matrilineal kinship, ed. Schneider, D. & Gough, K.. University of California Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Gough, K. (1961b) The modern disintegration of matrilineal descent groups. In: Matrilineal kinship, ed. Schneider, D. & Gough, K.. University of California Press. [MVF, taJH]Google Scholar
Gough, K. (1961c) Variation in interpersonal kinship relations. In: Matrilineal kinship, ed. Schneider, D. & Gough, K.. University of California Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Grafen, A. (1984) Natural selection, kin selection and group selection. In: Behavioural ecology: An evolutionary approach, ed. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. H.. Blackwell Scientific Publications. [MBM]Google Scholar
Gray, J. P. & Wolf, L. D. (1981) A note on brother inheritance. Ethology and Sociobiology 2:154–58. [taJH]Google Scholar
Green, P. J. (1978) Promiscuity, paternity and culture. American Ethnologist 5:151–59. [MVF, taJH, MBM]Google Scholar
Hallpike, C. R. (1984) The relevance of the theory of inclusive fitness to human society. Journal of Social and Biological Structures 7:131–44. [JAK]Google Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:1–52. [rJH, MBM]Google Scholar
Hartland, E. S. (1894–1896) The legend of Perseus. 3 vols. David Nutt. [RF]Google Scholar
Hartland, E. S. (1909–1910) Primitive paternity. 2 vols. David Nutt. [RF]Google Scholar
Hartland, E. S. (1921) Primitive society. E. P. Dutton & Co. [rJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1976) On natural selection and the inheritance of wealth. Current Anthropology 17:607–22. [PTE, tarJH, WMS]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartung, J. (1980) The geneticness of traits: Beyond Vp = Vc + VCE + CovGE + Vc. Current Anthropology 21:131–32. [tarJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1981a) Genome parliaments and sex with the red queen. In: Natural selection and social behavior, ed. Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W.. Chiron Press. [taJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1981b) Paternity and inheritance of wealth. Nature 291:652–54. [tarJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1982a) Comment: Reply to Gray and Wolfe. Ethology and Sociobiology 3:101. [tarJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1982b) Polygyny and inheritance of wealth. Current Anthropology 23:1–12. [MVF, tarJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1983) In defense of Murdock: A reply to Dickemann. Current Anthropology 24:125–26. [taJH, JAK]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1984a) Commentary: Blood group and socio-economic class. Nature 309:398. [taJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1984b) Heritable IQ: A reason to bother. Nature 311:515–16. [taJH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartung, J. (1985a) Polygyny, brideprice, inheritance and oedipus. In: The bride: Given away, sold, bartered, stolen, ed. Volger, G.. Des Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum. In press. [taJH]Google Scholar
Hartung, J. (1985b) Review of Shepher, Incest: A biosocial view. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 67(2):169–71. [rJH]Google Scholar
Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S. B. (1984) Infanticide: Comparative and evolutionary perspectives. Aldine. [JAK]Google Scholar
Herodotus (ca. 400 B.C.) The histories. [taJH, CSL]Google Scholar
Hiatt, L. R. (1980) Polyandry in Sri Lanka: A test case for parental investment theory. Man 15:583–602. [MVF]Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (1977) The Langurs of Abu. Harvard University Press. [rJH]Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (1981) The woman that never evolved. Harvard University Press. [WMS]Google Scholar
Hulseman, B. R. (1976) An anthropological view of clitoral and other female genital mutilations. In: The clitoris, ed. Lowry, T. P. & Lowry, T. S.. Warren H. Green. [taJH]Google Scholar
Humpf, D. A. & Kurland, J. A. (in preparation) Sex-bias in infanticide New World societies? [JAK]Google Scholar
Irons, W. G. (1979a) Cultural and biological success. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior: An anthropological perspective, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [MBM]Google Scholar
Irons, W. G. (1979b) Investment and primary social dyads. In: Natural selection and social behavior: Recent research and new theory, ed. Alexander, R. D. & Tinkle, D. W.. Chiron Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Irons, W. G. (1980) Is Yomut social behavior adaptive? In: Sociobiology: Beyond nature/nurture, ed. Barlow, G. W. & Silverberg, J.. Westview Press. [taJH]Google Scholar
Irons, W. G. (1983) Human female reproductive strategies. In: Social behavior of female vertebrates, ed. Wasser, S.. Academic Press. [MVF]Google Scholar
Junod, H. (1913) Life of a South African tribe. Attinger Frères. [taJH, CSL]Google Scholar
Kahn, M. C. (1931) Djuka: The bush negroes of Dutch Guiana. Viking Press. [taJH]Google Scholar
Keyfitz, N. (1977) Introduction to the mathematics of population, with revisions. Addison-Wesley. [PTE]Google Scholar
Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B., eds. (1978) Behavioral ecology: An evolutionary approach. Sinauer Associates. 2d. ed. 1934. [MVF]Google Scholar
Kroeber, A. L. (1917) The matrilineate again. American Anthropologist 19:571–79. [rJH]Google Scholar
Kurland, J. A. (1979) Paternity, mother's brother, and human sociality. In: Evolutionary biology and human social behavior, ed. Chagnon, N. A. & Irons, W.. Duxbury Press. [MVF, taJH, JAK]Google Scholar
Lancaster, C. & Lancaster, J. (in press) Eve and Adam: The evolution of human sexuality. University of Oklahoma Press. [CSL]Google Scholar
Mackey, W. (1980) A sociobiological perspective on divorce patterns of men in the United States. Journal of Anthropological Research 36:419–30. [DRV]Google Scholar
McLennan, J. F. (1865) Primitive marriage. Black. [taJH, CSL]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malinowski, B. (1963) Foreword to Sorcerers of Dobu by Fortune, R.. Dutton. [MVF]Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J. (1980) A new theory of sexual investment. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7:247–51. [MBM]Google Scholar
Millar, J. (1771) Observations concerning the distinction of ranks in society. Murray. [tarJH]Google Scholar
Modern Universal History (1759) Richardson. [taJH]Google Scholar
Morgan, L. H. (1877) Ancient society. Holt. [taJH, CSL]Google Scholar
Morgan, L. H. (1959) Africa: Its people and their culture history.Google Scholar
Murdock, C. P. (1949). Social structure. Macmillan. [MVF, CSL] McGraw-Hill. [taJH]Google Scholar
Morgan, L. H. (1967) The ethnographic atlas. University of Pittsburgh Press. [tarJH]Google Scholar
Morgan, L. H. (1971) Anthropology's mythology. Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 1971:17–24. [taJH]Google Scholar
Morgan, L. H. (1981) Atlas of world cultures. University of Pittsburgh Press. [rJH]Google Scholar
Murdock, G. P. & White, D. O. (1980) Subsistence economy and supportive practice. In: Cross-cultural samples and codes, ed. Barry, H. & Schlegel, A.. University of Pittsburgh Press. [rJH]Google Scholar
Myers, A. C., ed. (1937) William Penn: His own account of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians, 1683. Published by the editor. [RF]Google Scholar
O'Leary, T. (1969) Concordance of the Ethnographic Atlas with the Outline of World Cultures. Behavior Science Notes 2:165–207. [taJH]Google Scholar
Preston, S. (1984) Children and the elderly: Divergent paths for American's dependents. Demography 21:435–58. [DRV]Google Scholar
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1924) The mother's brother in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 21:542–55. [taJH]Google Scholar
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1935) On the concept of function in social science. American Anthropologist 37:394–402. [taJH]Google Scholar
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1950) Introduction. In: African systems of kinship and marriage, ed. Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. & Forde, D.. Oxford University Press. [RF, taJH]Google Scholar
Richards, I. A. (1950) Some types of family structure amongst the central Bantu. In: African systems of kinship and marriage, ed. Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. & Forde, D.. Oxford University Press. [MVF, tarJH]Google Scholar
Richardson, P. L. (1985) Derelicts and drifters. Natural History 94(6):42–49. [rJH]Google Scholar
Ronhaar, J. H. (1931) Woman in primitive motherright societies. J. B. Wolters. [rJH]Google Scholar
Sahlins, M. (1968) Tribesmen. Prentice-Hall. [CSL]Google Scholar
Sahlins, M. (1976) The use and abuse of biology. University of Michigan Press. [JAK]Google Scholar
Schneider, D. (1961) Introduction. In: Matrilineal kinship, ed. Schneider, D. & Cough, K.. University of California Press. [taJH]Google Scholar
Schneider, H. K. (1979) Livestock and equality in East Africa: The economic basis for social structure. Indiana University Press. [MBM]Google Scholar
Shepher, J. (1971a) Mate selection among second-generation kibbutz adolescents and adults: Incest avoidance and negative imprinting. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1:293–307. [rJH]Google Scholar
Shepher, J. (1971b) Self imposed incest avoidance and exogamy in second generation kibbutz adults. University Microfilms (Ann Arbor). [rJH]Google Scholar
Shepher, J. (1983) Incest: A biosocial view. Academic Press. [rJH]Google Scholar
Shields, W. M. (1982) Philopatry, inbreeding, and the evolution of sex. State University of New York Press. [WMS]Google Scholar
Shields, W. M. & Shields, L. M. (1983) Forcible rape: An evolutionary perspective. Ethology and Sociobiology 4:115–36. [WMS]Google Scholar
Smith, E. A. (1983) Evolutionary ecology and the analysis of human social behavior. In: Rethinking human adaptation, ed. Dyson-Hudson, R. & Little, M. A.. Westview Press. [JAK]Google Scholar
Smith, M. (1982) Grandparenting as kin investment. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society of Human Ethology, Atlanta, Ga. [JAK]Google Scholar
Stack, C. B. (1974) All our kin. Harper and Row. [JAK]Google Scholar
Swetnam, J. J. & Knack, M. C. (1979) Comment on Barkow. American Anthropologist 81:108. [taJH]CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symons, D. (1979) The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford University Press. [JAK]Google Scholar
Textor, R. B. (1967) A cross-cultural summary. HRAF Press. [GB]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R. & Alcoek, J. (1983) The evolution of insect mating systems. Harvard University Press. [NWT]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1983) Human rape: An evolutionary analysis. Ethology and Sociobiology 4:137–73. [WMS]Google Scholar
Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (in press) Evolutionary theory and rules of mating and marriage pertaining to consanguineal and affinal kin. In: Psychology and sociobiology: Ideas, issues, and findings, ed. Crawford, C. & Krebs, C.. Erlbaum. [NWT]Google Scholar
Tomberlin, T. J., Greene, P. J. & Hartung, J. (1981) A correction for diffusion: A loglinear approach to Galton's problem. Proceedings of the Social Science Section of the American Statistical Association 1981:365–68. [taJH]Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971, ed. Campbell, B.. Aldine. [taJH, NWT]Google Scholar
Unwin, J. (1933) Sex and culture. Oxford University Press. [DRV]Google Scholar
van den Berghe, P. L. (1979) Human family systems: An evolutionary view. Elsevier. [rJH, WMS]Google Scholar
Wasser, S. K. (1983) Social behavior of female vertebrates. Academic Press. [WMS]Google Scholar
Weatherhead, P. J. & Robertson, R. J. (1979) Offspring quality and the polygyny threshold: “The sexy son hypothesis.” American Naturalist 113:201–8. [JAK]Google Scholar
Whiting, J., Bogucki, P., Kwong, W. Y. & Nigra, J. (1977) Infanticide. Paper presented at the meetings of the Society for Cross Cultural Research, East Lansing, Mich. [taJH]Google Scholar
Whyte, M. K. (1980) Cross-cultural codes dealing with the relative status of women. In: Cross-cultural samples and codes, ed. Barry, H. & Schlegel, A.. University of Pittsburgh Press. [rJH]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton University Press. [JAK]Google Scholar
Williams, G. C. & Williams, D. C. (1957) Natural selection of individually harmful social adaptations among sibs with special reference to social insects. Evolution 11:32. [rJH]Google Scholar
Wilson, D. S. (1980) The natural selection of populations and communities. Benjamin/Cummings. [WMS]Google Scholar
Wilson, E. O. (1975) Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Harvard University Press. [ISB, tarJH]Google Scholar
Wolf, L. D. & Gray, J. P. (1981) Comment on Gaulin and Schlegel. Ethology and Sociobiology 2:95–98. [taJH]Google Scholar
World Health Organization Seminar (1979) Traditional practices affecting the health of women and children. Available from WHO Regional Office, P.O. Box 1517, Alexandria, Egypt. [taJH]Google Scholar