Hostname: page-component-55f67697df-2z2hb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-10T20:37:36.289Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

To Discipline or Accommodate? On the Rehabilitation of Japanese ‘Problem Youth’

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2025

Aaron Miller  and
Tuukka Toivonen
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

While mainstream education has received ample attention from scholars of Japan, the diverse kinds of private institutions concerned with the rehabilitation of so-called ‘problem youth’ have not hitherto been subjected to systematic analysis. This article offers an in-depth study of two starkly contrasting organizations, the Totsuka Yacht School and K2 International. We focus on the rehabilitation philosophies of these groups and examine how they view ‘problem youth’; the remedies they advocate; the critical incidents they have been implicated in; and how they have responded in their aftermath. These two organizations epitomize two important opposing paradigms of rehabilitation: one ‘disciplinarian’ and one ‘accommodating’, and therefore reflect different moral discourses regarding youth and the problems they face. Analysis of these groups illustrates how they are being challenged by current social and educational trends, but also how, as local actors, the charismatic leaders of these institutions also play a significant role in shaping the discourse. This study is among the first to map out the complex terrain of residential rehabilitative institutions in Japan. It also raises questions for educators regarding the meaning of ‘nonformal’ or ‘alternative’ education, helps youth specialists better understand the diversity of approaches employed in dealing with ‘problem youth’, and will be of interest to non-Japan scholars seeking evidence of approaches to rehabilitation which do not solely attempt to ‘medicalize’ youth as being ‘ill’ or to ‘activate’ them in order to return them to the labor market.

Type
Research Article
Information
Asia-Pacific Journal , Volume 7 , Issue 20 , May 2009 , e6
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work.
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2009

References

Akagi, Tomohiro (Translated by Selden, Kyoko). 2007. “War is the Only Solution. A 31-year-old freeter explains the plight and future of Japan's Marginal Workers/Selected Responses by Fukushima Mizuho, Mori Tatsuya, and Okuhara Noriharu”, The Asia-Pacific Journal. Originally appeared in Ronza in January, 2007. Responses appeared in the January, 2007 issues. Akagi responds in the June issue of Ronza.Google Scholar
Ambaras, David Richard. 2006. Bad Youth: Juvenile Delinquency and the Politics of Everyday Life in Modern Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asahi Shimbun. 1983. “Taibatsu to iu kanri shugi” (The Management-ism called Corporal Punishment). June 8.Google Scholar
1991. “Totsuka yotto ga hinto? Mihara kaze no kogakuen enchō kōchō to au” (Was TYS A Hint: Mihara's Kaze no Kogakuen Principal Meets with Totsuka). August 8.Google Scholar
1991. “Jishin tappuri Totsuka ryū suparuta ha kieta ka” (The Totsuka Clan Full of Confidence: Have They Given Up Spartan Education?). October 29.Google Scholar
1991. “Totsuka yotto sukuru jiken ronkoku” (Prosecutor's Closing Argument in TYS Incident Trial). October 30.Google Scholar
1992. “Kunrensei Mosaku suru kodomotachi totsuka yotto hanketsu wo mae ni: jō” (First Part of Series “Before the Totsuka Verdict”: Children Groping: A Trainee). July 15.Google Scholar
2003. “Nyūjīrando no futōkōsei shisetsu de hōjin shibō: shūdan bōkō no utagai” (A Japanese National Dies at a Facility for School-Refusers in New Zealand: Group Violence Suspected). February 27.Google Scholar
2003. “NZ, futōkōsei shisetsu de kōsoku no 10-nin hoshaku: hōjin shibō jiken” (Ten Members of a Facility for School-Refusers in New Zealand Held in Custody Are Released on Bail: The Incident that Led to the Death of a Japanese National). February 28.Google Scholar
2003. “Sōsa bōgai, bōkō yōgi de 5-nin wo taiho: NZ hōjin shibō jiken” (Five Japanese Arrested on Suspicion of Obstructing an Investigation and Violent Assault: The Incident that Led to the Death of a Japanese National in New Zealand). February 27 (Evening Edition).Google Scholar
2003. “Hōjin 9-nin asu kiso: satsujin, bōkō, rachikankinzai: NZ kijukusei shibō jiken” (Nine Japanese Nationals to be Prosecuted Tomorrow on Charges of Manslaughter, Violent Assault and Kidnapping: The Incident That Led to the Death of a Dormitory Resident in New Zealand). March 12 (Evening Edition).Google Scholar
2003. “Satsujinzai nado de hōjin 9-nin kiso: NZ, kijukusei shibō jiken” (Nine Japanese Nationals Face Charges of Manslaughter and Other Charges: The Deadly Incident of a Dormitory Resident in New Zealand). March 14.Google Scholar
2004. “Hōjin 4-nin ni kinko no jikkei: NZ ryōsei bōkōshi” (Four Japanese Nationals Receive a Prison Sentence: The Violent Death of a Dormitory Resident in New Zealand). December 3 (Evening Edition).Google Scholar
Asano, Shirou and Nouki, Futagami (Translated by Junkerman, John). 2006. “The ‘Integrated Community’: Toward the Transformation of the Hikikomori Archipelago Japan (A Dialogue between Asano Shirou and Futagami Nouki)”. The Asia-Pacific Journal.Google Scholar
Baker, David and LeTendre, Gerald. 2005. National Differences, Global Similarities: World Culture and the Future of Schooling. Palo Alto: Stanford Press Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, Roger. 2003. “Child Abuse in Japan: ‘Discovery’ and the Development of Policy”, in Goodman, Roger (ed.), 2003, Family and Social Policy in Japan: Anthropological Approaches, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 131–155.Google Scholar
Fukuzawa, Rebecca Erwin. 2006. “Classroom Management, School Culture and Community: An Ethnography of Middle School Discipline Policies,” Hosei University Koganeishu: Volume 3.Google Scholar
Fujiwara, Masahiko. 2005. Kokka no Hinkaku (The Dignity of the Nation). Tokyo: Shinchosha.Google Scholar
Futagami, Nōki. 2005. Kibō no Nīto: Genba kara no Messēji (NEETs of Hope: A Message from the Field). Tokyo: Tōyō Keizai Shinpōsha.Google Scholar
Japan Today Online. 2009. ‘Another question mark over Totsuka school's education methods’, Japan Today, October 28th.Google Scholar
K2 International. 2007. Wakamono Jiritsu Juku Yokohama Apurentisushippu Sentā (Youth Independence Camp Yokohama Apprenticeship Centre [brochure]). Author Publisher.Google Scholar
2008. K2 International's Homepage. http://www.k2-inter.com.Google Scholar
Kanamori, Katsuo. 1999. “Koronbusu Daikōkai: Intānashonaru Koronbusu Akademī no Ayumi” (The Great Columbus Voyage: The Course of International Columbus Academy). Gekkan Shōnen Ikusei 514: 8–15.Google Scholar
2000. “Futōkōjitachi no shūshoku jijō: Koronbusu Akademī no Baai” (The Employment Situation of School-Refusers: The Case of Columbus Academy). Gekkan Shōnen Ikusei 529: 32–37.Google Scholar
Kaneko, Masaru, and Kaneko, Masaomi (Translated by Kiyama, Lorinda). 2003. “Is There a Tomorrow for a Japanese Society without Hope? A Dialogue between Kaneko Masaru and Kaneko Masaomi” The Asia-Pacific Journal (Originally in SEKAI, no. 710 (February 2003), Reprinted from Japan in the World website). Published at Japan Focus on June 17, 2007.Google Scholar
Kosugi, Reiko. 2010. “Youth Employment in Japan's Economic Recovery: ‘Freeters’ and 'NEETs”, Posted at The Asia-Pacific Journal on May 11, 2006.Google Scholar
Kudō, Kei. 2006. Sodateage: Wakamono no Jiritsu wo Shien Suru (Sodateage: Supporting the Independence of Youth). Tokyo: Surugadai Shuppan.Google Scholar
Levitan, Sar A. and Johnston, Benjamin H.. 1975. The Job Corps: A Social Experiment That Works. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Rinku, Manabi. 2007. Zenkoku Furīsukūru Gaido 2007-2008-nenban: Shōchūkō Futōkōsei no Ibasho Sagashi (A Guide to Free Schools across Japan in 2007-2008: The Search of School-Refusers from Elementary, Secondary and Upper Secondary Schools for a Place of Their Own). Rīfu Shuppan, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Miller, Aaron. 2009. “Taibatsu: ‘Corporal punishment’ in Japanese socio-cultural context,” Japan Forum 21(2): 233–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Government of Japan). 2007. Kimi no Chikara, Mirai no Chikara: Wakamono Shien Genba kara no Messēji (Your Power - the Power of the Future: Messages from the Frontlines of Youth Support). Wakamono no Ningenryoku wo Takameru tame no Kokumin Kaigi Jimukyoku, Kōseirōdōshō Shokugyō Antei Kyoku, Government of Japan.Google Scholar
New Zealand Herald. 2003. “School Director Charged in Relation to Student's Death”. February 27.Google Scholar
2003. “Academy Where Japanese Man Died is Closing”. July 4.Google Scholar
2004. “Four Men Jailed 3-1/2 Years for Beating Student to Death”. December 3.Google Scholar
Shimbun, Nikkei Keizai. 2007. “Taibatsu ya shūseki teishi” (Corporeal Punishment and Throwing Children out of Class). January 25.Google Scholar
Woman, Nikkei. 2008. “Ūman obu za iā 2008” (Women of the Year 2008). Nikkei Woman, 1/2008: 177.Google Scholar
Okano, Kaori and Tsuchiya, Motonari. 1999. Education in Contemporary Japan: Inequality and Diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Purojekuto, Purattofōmu. 2003. Zenkoku Hikikomori Futōkō Enjo Dantai Repōto: Shukuhaku-gata Shisetsu-hen (A Report on Hikikomori and School-Refuser Help Groups across Japan: Residential Facilities). Tokyo: Potto Shuppan.Google Scholar
Rogers, Alan. 2005. Non-formal education: flexible schooling or participatory education? New York: Springer, CERC Studies in Comparative Education.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohlen, Thomas. 1983. Japan's High Schools. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohlen, Thomas, and LeTendre, Gerald (Eds.). 1996. Teaching and Learning in Japan. New York: Cambridge Press Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryang, Sonia. 1997. North Koreans in Japan. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Frank J. & Pharr, Susan J.. 2003. The State of Civil Society in Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimizu, Kokichi, and Kozo, Tokuda. 1991. Yomigaere kōritsu chūgaku. (Public School Again). Tokyo: Yūshindo.Google Scholar
Shirai, Toshiaki, Hideo, Okamoto, Junko, Tochio, Shoko, Kono, Junya, Kondo, Kenji, Fukuda, Matsuko, Kashio, and Shouji, Kodama. 2005. “Hiko kara no shonen no tachinaori ni kansuru seishō hattatsuteki kenkyu.” (Lifelong Development Research Regarding the Recovery of Youth From Deliquency) Osaka: Osaka Kyōiku Daigaku Kiyō. 54(1): 111–129.Google Scholar
Slater, David H. 2010. “The Making of Japan's New Working Class: ”Freeters“ and the Progression From Middle School to the Labor Market,” The Asia-Pacific Journal, 1-1-10, January 4, 2010.Google Scholar
Sogawa, Tsuneo. 1993. “Review of Andrew Duff-Cooper ‘Contests‘”. Asian Folklore Studies, 52(2): 397.Google Scholar
Tsukada, Mamoru. 1991a. Yobiko life: A study of the legitimation process of social stratification in Japan. Berkeley: Centre for Japanese Studies, University of California.Google Scholar
1991b. “Student perspectives on juku, yobiko, and the examination system,” In Finkelstein, B., et al. 1991. Transcending Stereotypes: Discovering Japanese Culture and Education. Yarmouth, MA: Intercultural Press, Pp. 126–134.Google Scholar
Toivonen, Tuukka. 2008. “Introducing the Youth Independence Camp: How a New Social Policy is Re-configuring the Public-Private Boundaries of Social Provision in Japan”. Sociologos 32.Google Scholar
2009. Explaining Social Inclusion and Activation Policy for Youth in 21st Century Japan. University of Oxford PhD Thesis.Google Scholar
Totsuka, Hiroshi. 1985. Watashi ga naosu (I Will Cure Them), Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, Kadokawa Bunko.Google Scholar
1998. Teki ha Nōkan Ni Aru. (The Enemy is in the Brain Stem). Tokyo: Kenko Shinsha.Google Scholar
2003. Kyoiku Saisei: Kore de Kodomo ha Sukuwareru. (Educational Rebirth: Here's How We Can Save Our Children). Tokyo: Mirion Shuppan.Google Scholar
2007. Honnō no Chikara (The Power of the Instinct). Tokyo: Shinchosha.Google Scholar
School, Totsuka Yacht. 2008. TYS Homepage. http://www.totsuka-school.sakura.ne.jp.Google Scholar
Wada, Shigehiro. 1997. ‘Kan’ wo Sodateru: Ikizumaranai Kyōiku (Cultivating ‘kan’: An Education That Does Not Lead to Dead-Ends). Tokyo: Jiyūsha.Google Scholar
Watters, Ethan. 2010. Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche, New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Yamazaki, Atsushi. 1994. “The Medicalization and Demedicalization of School Refusal: Constructing an Educational Problem in Japan”. In Best, Joel (ed.) (1994) Troubling Children: Studies of Children and Social Problems, New York, Walter de Gruyter, Pp. 201–217.Google Scholar
Yoder, Robert. 2004. Youth Deviance in Japan: Class Reproduction and Non-Conformity. Melbourne: Trans Pacific Press.Google Scholar
Yoneyama, Shoko. 1999. The Japanese High School: Silence and Resistance. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
2008. “The Era of Bullying: Japan Under Neoliberalism,” The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 1-3-09, December 31, 2008. Accessed April 13, 2010.Google Scholar