Historically, nation-state level fisheries management has relied primarily on the disciplines of biology, ecology, and to some extent economics – usually in some combination, and with varying degrees of emphasis and success. Recently, as an increasing number of fisheries have begun to experience severe declines there has been increased interest in how social scientists might help to address some of these problems. In managing fisheries, it is humans who must be understood and managed. Furthermore, some managers have begun to question the view of biological conservation as the primary goal of management, sceing economic and social goals as equally important. Social science studies of fisheries indicate that not all members of a given user group operate in the same way, or have the same impact on marine ecosystems. People's behavior is often influenced by family, community, and other sociocultural variables in addition to economic and cological considerations. Using the perspectives and methodologies derived froin disciplines such as anthropology and sociology, fisheries managers should be able to develop policies which integrate and balance economic, social and biological objectives. Management systems which are more compatible with broad user group values should result in higher coinpliance and reduced enforcement costs.An overview of recent social science research pertaining to fisheries management is discussed, andexamples presented on the relevance of social science information in crafting successful managementregimes.

Using the example of the New England Regional Fishenes Management Council and its attempts tu manage the fisheries in its area, this paper argues that disferences in the way Nature "operates" constitutes a major source of divisiveness between, on the one hand, those members (and other managers in, say, government) who use linear modeling systems and, on the other hand, the majority of those in the commercial fishing sector who, intuitively, have cast nature in those non-linear terms currently being explored in the Chaos paradigm. Since these two different models have not been explicitly addressed, there is a history of members on each side accusing those on the other of bargaining in poor faith and lacking an adequate understanding of the resource. The thesis of the paper is that making explicit these underlying cognitive modes would provide more "common ground" for addressing management problems in such co-management arenas as the fishery management councils and elsewhere.

Fisheries management in the future will require that biological assessments be combined appropriately with operational, social, and economic considerations toward effective management of complex fisheries systems. This is not currently being done in fisheries management because of: (i) the lack of a conceptual and organizational framework for integrated and participatory decision making, and (ii) the lack of more appropriate methodologies for dealing with diverse sources of information, interdisciplinary objectives, and the inherent uncertainty of these systems. An integration of traditional "fisheries science" with other aspects of "fisheries management" and the field of "management science" in a new discipline of "Fisheries Management Science" is proposed. FMS is defined as "the rigorous application of the scientific method of problem solving in the development of strategic alternatives and their evaluation on the basis of objectives that integrate biological, economic, social, and operational factors into management decision making". Management science or operational research provides guidance in methodologies for complex decision making and problem resolution. A multidisciplinary decision framework is proposed involving the following key steps: (1) specification of quantifiable objectives and constraints; (2) modelling of the expected multicriteria performance of a range of proposed management decisions; (3) risk assessment through descriptions of the expected variability in performance measures; (4) risk management through analytical evaluation of risk and ranking of alternate solutions; and (5) continuous monitoring and improvement of past decisions including deviations from expected performance and corresponding adjustment of future alternatives toward achieving strategic objectives.

Fisheries can be characterized as a network of interactions between natural and social systems, and thus should be viewed as complex, dynamic systems. Due to the multiplicity of components and processes, the involvement of various disciplines is required to understand the inter-relationships within and between the systems, and more so to adequately address management issues that typically affect several elements in the systems. To be successful, multidisciplinary approaches require mutual understanding of the perspectives, concepts, vocabulary and methods held by various disciplines, and agreement on the objects to be studied in common. In that spirit, at framework is suggested whereby fisheries systems are decomposed into related sub-systems that can be recognized by both Social and Life Sciences. Some key concepts attached to cach module and to its interactions with the others are identified, and may be starting points for dialogue and common undertakings by various disciplines, with a view to improving our understanding of the dynamics of the whole system.

The pursuit of sustainable fisheries requires a broad vision of fishery science as the scientific study of fishery systems. This implies the incorporation into fishery science of research on fishery management, fishing processes, fisher behaviour and the human dynamics of fishery systems. Such research requires (a) more extensive multidisciplinary linkages, with an increased role for economic and social science research, and (b) more day-to-day linkages between people, namely those involved in fishery science and in management, together with fishery stakeholders. This paper reviews potential directions for fisheries research, and suggests a corresponding range of multidisciplinary research priorities, focused on analysis of: (a) the fishery management system, at both strategic and operational levels, (b) fisher behaviour andresponse to regulations, (c) "human dynamics" in fisheries, and (d) fishery systems modelling.

In 1983, the European Community (EC) agreed on a system for the conservation and management offishery resources which is based largely on the use of annual total allowable catch (TAC). Nevertheless, the state of many European stocks of demersal species has worsened since 1983. A review of TAC enforcement shows that landings have exceeded TACs to a limited extent for these resources. The contrary is observed for the stocks of pelagic species of which the state has improved although landings have frequently been larger than TACs. This double paradox generates a feeling of limited impact of the TAC system implemented by the EC. To investigate the reasons, the closeness between agreed TACs and scientific recommendations has been examined. The results show that the TAC decision process gives some preference to stability but attention is paid to the scientific recommendations. Finally, the lack of accuracy of predicted changes of fishing mortality in catch forecasts is found to have played a critical part in the failure of TACs to avoid the deteriorations of resources observed in EC waters. It leads to the conclusion that evaluation of risks in the TAC decision process and participation of actors of the fishing sector in risk management are important matters that cannot be avoided if one wants to improve the legitimacy of fisheries management and therefore its efficiency.

This paper traces the evolution of snow crab fisheries science and its impact on the management of the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) fishery. This currently lucrative fishery (estimated landed value of more than 125 million Canadian dollars in 1994) has experienced the traditional rises and falls of most fisheries and the resulting socio-economic consequences and sometimes strained relations between the industry and the fisheries management agency, in this case the Canada Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO). Of note at this time is the remarkable degree of cooperation that has developed between the industry and DFO since the stock has drastically decreased (1987–1989). Since then the stock has been recovering steadily and is also better managed. The reasons for this are four-fold: (1) arecruitment pulse of small-sized crab occurred in 1988–1989; (2) substantial advances in the understanding of the complex biology of snow crab and the development of an accurate, reliable stock assessment methodology together have provided consistent, reliable and credible advice for forecasting the amount and geographic distribution of exploitable biomass for the upcoming fishing season; (3) the industry leaders worked very hard with their associations to convince fishers that their fishery was in peril and that close cooperation with DFO was the key for the future; (4) the industry and DFO (fisheries biologists and managers) worked as partners to develop a management approach based upon scientific advice to climb out of the trough. The paper also outlines the conundrum that fisheries managers currently face resulting from a combination of a moratorium of the entire Gulf of St. Lawrence groundfish fishery, the consequent pressure from displaced groundfish fishers to enter the lucrative snow crab fishery and an optimistic shortterm but pessimistic longer term forecast regarding snow crab abundance: do we redistribute the wealth; if so among whom and how and for how long?

This paper examines the Canadian experience with quota managed fisheries, reviewing institutional structures and approaches. It begins with a review of management objectives following the extension of jurisdiction and traces the nature and rationale of changes. The specific measures used to achieve objectives are examined from a theoretical and practical perspective. The measures fall into two broad categories: conventional input controls: vessel and gear restrictions; and, output controls: tradable and non-tradable enterprise/individual quotas.

The experience indicates that input controls are largely ineffective in constraining effort. These measures fail to address the common property characteristics of the resource and consequently failed to blunt the incentives for share maximization and increased capitalization. These in turn lead to overfishing and misreporting, thereby undermining management objectives. Output controls in the form of individual tradable quotas fare better in constraining effort. They lead to fleet rationalization and improved quality and flow of raw material to processing facilities. But they may also lead to highgrading and discarding, as quantity incentives give way to unit-value incentives under the rights-based regime.

Some of the carly failures and more recent successes of policy are outlined, lessons are drawn and suggestions made about future directions.

Management techniques in two sea scallop Placopecten magellanicus fisheries in Nova Scotia are compared and contrasted. In one, traditional management methods are used to protect the stock from overexploitation. In the other fishery, enterprise allocations in the form of quota shares are used to mimic property rights. Over the past decade, the fleets' reactions to stock conditions have been dramatically different. It is argued that the evidence supports a quasi-property management regime, though other factors are at play as well.