The horizontal and vertical distributions of cyanobacteria and algae on soil polygons on Signy Island were investigated. Soil chlorophyll concentrations increased from the centre to the edge of the polygons. Similar distributions of the non-motile genera, such as Pseudanabaena and Nostoc, were observed, whereas the motile taxa, Phormidium and Pinnularia, were evenly distributed across the polygon. Phormidium autumnale was the most widespread taxon, and other Oscillatoriaceae were also important, although large differences in community composition between polygons were observed. Most of the algal biomass was concentrated near the surface of the soil, although chlorophyll degradation products were found to depths of up to 8 cm. Examination of the soil profile by fluorescence microscopy indicated that a large proportion of the microflora occurred in the zone 0–1 mm below the surface, and scanning electron microscopy confirmed that few algae occurred on the soil surface. It is suggested that this may be a desiccation-avoidance strategy. Vertical migration of the motile microalgae to the soil surface was not observed in the field, but could be induced in the laboratory in the presence of excess water, although no diel cycle to this movement was observed.

As part of the Ross Sea Marginal Ice Zone Ecology Project (ROSSMIZE) the summer organic matter flux through the water column was measured at 40 m depth in Terra Nova Bay. Water samples and material from a sediment trap on the sea-bottom were analysed for their biochemical composition. A close coupling between biochemical composition of the organic matter in the water column and the material collected in the sediment trap was found, resulting from complex interactions between physical and biological processes. The physical processes are related to break-up and melting of the ice cover and occur mainly in the early summer season, whilst biological processes play a key role in mid summer and, from the evidence from faecal pellets, are related to the primary production and consumption processes.

The northern Prince Charles Mountains overlook the western side of the 700 km long Lambert Glacier–Amery Ice Shelf drainage system. Within these mountains, at Amery Oasis (70°50′S, 68°00′E) and Fisher Massif (71°31′S, 67°40′E), the Cenozoic glaciomarine Pagodroma Group consists of four uplifted Miocene and Pliocene–early Pleistocene formations here named the Mount Johnston, Fisher Bench, Battye Glacier and Bardin Bluffs formations. These are composed of massive and stratified diamicts, boulder gravels and minor laminated sandstones, siltstones and mudstones. Each formation rests on either Precambrian metamorphic rocks, or on Permo-Triassic fluvial strata. The unconformity surfaces are parts of the walls and floors of palaeofjords. The Miocene Fisher Bench Formation exceeds 350 m in thickness at Fisher Massif, where the yet older Miocene (or Oligocene) Mount Johnston Formation overlies basement rocks at up to 1400 m above sea level. Individual formations contain either Miocene diatoms, or else Pliocene–early Pleistocene diatom-foram assemblages. The diamicts are interpreted as fjordal ice-proximal or ice-contact sediments, deposited seawards of tidewater glacier fronts located some 250 to 300 km inland of the present ocean margin. Each formation records an ice recession following a glacial expansion.

Recent rapid changes of air temperature on the western side of the Antarctic Peninsula results in increased sediment discharge and ice scouring frequencies in coastal regions. These changes are bound to especially affect slow growing, sessile filter feeders such as the Antarctic bivalve, Laternula elliptica, a long-lived and abundant key species with circumpolar distribution. We investigated the effect of sedimentation and ice scouring on small/young and large/old individuals at two closely located stations, distinctly influenced by both types of disturbance. Small individuals dealt better with disturbance in terms of their respiratory response to sediment exposure, reburrowing ability, and survival after injury, compared to larger animals. At the more disturbed station L. elliptica population density was lower, but larger animals reburrowed faster after iceberg disturbance and reduced their metabolic rate under strong sediment coverage, compared to larger animals of the less disturbed station, indicating that an adaptation or learning response to both types of disturbance may be possible. Smaller individuals were not influenced. Laternula elliptica seems capable of coping with the rapidly changing environmental conditions. Due to a decrease in population density and mean population lifespan, L. elliptica could however lose its key role in the bentho-pelagic carbon flux in areas of high sediment deposition.

The Rauer Group, in Prydz Bay, contains reworked Archaean-Proterozoic crust in high-strain zones that formed during a pervasive high-temperature ductile deformation event related to intracratonic mechanisms. The effects of this event extend southwards from Prydz Bay into the southern Prince Charles Mountains. The associated structural evolution involved development of ductile and brittle structures that formed during an approximately north–south directed transpressional deformation event that is confined to high-grade (>800°C) shear zones in the Rauer Group. Minerals from the Rauer Group, yield 40Ar/39Ar cooling ages ranging from 560 to 460 Ma. Thermal histories derived from hornblende, biotite and feldspar suggest that the onset of rapid cooling began sometime prior to 510 Ma with cooling rates of c. 42 to 33°C myr-1 from c. 510 Ma to c. 500 Ma. Whereas, 40Ar/39Ar data obtained from plagioclase and K–feldspar suggest a slower cooling from c. 500 Ma to c. 460 Ma with cooling rates from 5 to 2°C myr-1. These results demonstrate that the early Palaeozoic cooling history and comparable palaeostress regimes are regionally extensive, which has important implications for the tectonothermal and stress-field variability across Gondwana. The elevated thermal conditions would induce lithospheric weakening and promote the early Palaeozoic intraplate orogeny observed in eastern Antarctica with the development of a large intracratonic shear system.

The fatty acid profiles of Euphausia superba, the Antarctic prymnesiophyte, Phaeocystis pouchetii, and a temperate diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum were analysed and compared. The lipid content, lipid class, fatty acid and sterol composition of E. superba fed on each cultured phytoplankton and a mixed diet of both species, were determined. No significant difference was found between total lipid levels of E. superba reared on each of these different diets. Phaeocystis pouchetii, although deficient in a number of the essential fatty acids, is apparently an adequate food source for E. superba. The proportion of polyenoic fatty acids varied within lipid classes although there was no significant difference between levels of the long chain polyunsaturate 20:5(n-3) in the total lipid of E. superba fed on these diets. This acid was found to be less than 1% of the total lipid in Phaeocystis pouchetii compared to 37% in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. This suggests that krill may possess the ability to convert exogenous shorter chain fatty acids to 20:5(n-3) and 22:6(n-3). Significant differences were detected in the isomeric ratio of 16:1(n-7c)/16:0 between krill fed the diatom compared to the prymnesiophyte diet. Significant differences were also detected in several shorter chain fatty acids and between fatty acids within their lipid classes. Such differences may have the potential to be used as biochemical signatures to provide information on food sources and possible feeding grounds of E. superba. Phaeocystis pouchetii in a very late stationary phase, although not used in this feeding study, was found to contain 11% of 22:6(n-3) for which there are few substantive sources in natural algal populations.

Diving behaviour of chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica) was studied in four adults brooding chicks on Seal Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. During foraging trips to sea, chinstrap penguins made shallow, short duration dives almost continuously, for the most part within 50 m of the surface. Diving effort was concentrated during the daylight hours (10h00-15h00), although a second peak in effort was seen around midnight (22h00-02h00). These peaks were possibly due to the constraints of visual location of prey, chick provisioning, or the need to take advantage of diurnal changes in krill swarm densities or behaviour. It was estimated that most effort was concentrated 3-20 km from shore. Dive depth and duration averaged 31.0 m (± 26.3m) and 72s(± 36s), respectively. Maximum dive depth and duration were 121m and 180s, respectively.

New populations of the two species of calanoid copepods known to inhabit freshwater lakes in East Antarctica, Boeckella poppei (Mrázek, 1901) and Gladioferens antarcticus Bayly, 1994, have recently been discovered. The morphology of the populations of B. poppei showed significant differences, notably a reduction in the armature of the male fifth leg, when compared with typical specimens from the Antarctic Peninsula and South America. Gladioferens antarcticus had previously been recorded from a single lake in the Bunger Hills, but has now been recorded from three further lakes in this region. A recent review of Antarctic terrestrial and limnetic zooplankton suggested that neither of these species can be considered an East Antarctic endemic, with B. poppei being listed as a recent anthropogenic introduction and G. antarcticus a ‘marine interloper’. We conclude differently: B. poppei has been present in isolated populations in East Antarctica for significant lengths of time, possibly predating the current interglacial, while G. antarcticus is a true Antarctic endemic species whose ancestors have been present in the region since before Australia separated from Antarctica.

Two gravity cores, Gebra-1 and Gebra-2 from the central and eastern basins of Bransfield Strait, West Antarctica, consist mainly of hemipelagic, laminated muds with black layers rich in sand-sized volcanic ash. Micropalaeontological (diatoms and radiolarians) and geochemical (organic and inorganic) analyses, together with radiometric dating (U/Th, 14C and 210Pb) have been performed on both cores. AMS analyses on Total Organic Carbon yielded a 14C-age older than expected, 2810 yr BP for the core top of Gebra-1 and 2596 yr BP for Gebra-2. The downcore pattern of ages indicates a sedimentation rate of 130 cm kyr1 for Gebra-1 and 160 cm kyr1 for Gebra-2 210Pb anomalies suggest the core top of Gebra-1 is present-day sediment. The diatom and radiolarian assemblages are related to the sequence of neoglacial events over the last three millennia. The recent significant reduction in Chaetoceros resting spores is interpreted as a reduction in palaeoproductivity. The progressive increase in sea-ice taxa for the last three millennia may indicate a cooling trend. Greater sea-ice coverage during the coldest neoglacial events in the Bransfield Basin, as well as in the Weddell Sea and Bellingshausen Sea, is documented by increases in sea-ice taxa and reductions in Thalassiosira antarctica/ T. scotia resting spores, Fragilariopsis kerguelensis, the Lithomelissa group and the “circumpolar” group of radiolarians. For these periods, we postulate a restricted communication between the Weddell Sea, Bellingshausen Sea and Bransfield basin. The millenial-scale changes are overprinted by a high frequency cyclicity at about 200–300 yrs, which might be related to the 200–yrs solar cycle.

Diatoms are important primary producers in present day Antarctic waters but their relative significance in the past is less clear. In this study we used long-chain diols to reconstruct Proboscia diatom productivity in shelf waters of the western Antarctic Peninsula over the last 8500 yr. Biomarker lipid analysis revealed the presence of a suite of long-chain diols in the sediments, mainly comprising the C28 and C30 1,14-diol isomers derived from Proboscia diatoms and C28 and C30 1,13-diols derived from other unknown algae. The relative importance of Proboscia diatoms was assessed using the relative abundances of 1,14-diols versus 1,13-diols, which showed that Proboscia diatoms were relatively more abundant during the Late Holocene, suggesting that stronger upwelling of circumpolar waters occurred at that time. The variations in the diol index strongly correlate with melt events in the Siple Dome ice core, suggesting that the climatic processes responsible for changes in mean summer temperature, open marine influence and atmospheric cyclonic activity recorded at Siple Dome, also controlled the productivity of Proboscia diatoms on the western Antarctic Peninsula region.

The biota and environment of fumarolic ground recently discovered near Mount Rittmann are described. Three patches (about 1 m2 each) of the moss Pohlia nutans were found in a minor caldera rim. Cyanophytes, chlorophytes, protozoa and bacteria were isolated from the moss and warm ground (30–50°C). The results are compared with those of previous studies on Antarctic volcanoes. The origin of the geothermal flora is discussed in terms of long-distance transport of propagules to the continent.

During the period 9 December 1991–4 February 1992 shipboard and aerial surveys of seals in the pack ice off the Princess Martha Coast were made. All aerial surveys were flown from the MV SA Agulhas at the edge of the fast ice opposite SANAE at 70°19′S, 02°26′W. A total of 18 1/2-nm-wide transects were flown censusing 481.3 nm2 of pack ice within which 1437 seals were counted. The species composition of the seals was 94.4% crabeater, 3.4% Ross, 1.4% leopard and 0.8% Weddell seals. The density of seals nm−2 for the early season surveys (December) in the inner pack was 1.92 for crabeater, 0.0 for leopard; 0.026 for Weddell and 0.057 for Ross seals. The density for the late season surveys throughout the pack was 4.02 for crabeater, 0.10 for leopard, 0.029 for Weddell and 0.122 for Ross seals. These data support the thesis that seal densities increase as the amount of pack ice diminishes with the advance of summer. Leopard seals were largely found near the retreating outer edge of the pack, and Weddell seals associated closely with the inshore fast ice, whilst both crabeater and Ross seals showed no statistically significant preference either for any part of the pack ice or for any particular geographical area covered during the surveys in the present study. The high densities (0.45−2.91 seals nm−2) and percentage species contribution (9.7−32.4%) of Ross seals determined by shipboard censuses in the same area during the early 1970s could not be confirmed in the present study, and it is likely that a real decrease in Ross seal numbers has taken place.

Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands is one of the most volcanically active sites south of 60°S. Between 1967 and 1970 three major eruptions devastated large expanses of the landscape and its vegetation. Since 1970 extensive recolonization has occurred on the more stable surfaces. Unheated ground supports several bryophyte and lichen communities typical of much of the Maritime Antarctic, but geothermal habitats possess remarkable associations of bryophytes, many of which are unknown or very rare elsewhere in the Antarctic. Nine geothermal sites and their vegetation are described. Communities associated with more transient sites have disappeared when the geothermal activity ceased. Mosses and liverworts occur to within a few centimetres of the vents where temperatures reach 90–95°C, while temperatures within adjacent moss turf can reach 35–50°C or more and remain consistently between 25 and 45°C. Most of the bryoflora has a Patagonian–Fuegian provenance. It is presumed that, unlike most species, the thermophiles are not pre-adapted to the Antarctic environment, being able to colonize only where the warm and humid conditions prevail. The floristic and ecological importance of these thermophilic communities, and their sensitivity to perturbation by the rapidly increasing annual summer influx of tourists, as well as scientists, has resulted in these unique sites being proposed as components of a new Antarctic Specially Protected Area under the Antarctic Treaty.

Between September 1987 and February 1988, Antarctic fur seals Arctocephalus gazella (Peters) at Heard Island fed mainly on fish with an average 95.2% of scats in monthly collections containing fish remains. Pelagic myctophids constituted more than 50% of fish taken by fur seals at the beginning of the summer season and again at the end when there was an influx of non-breeding male seals. During the middle period from October to December, fish from the surrounding shelf area comprised the bulk of the diet. These included various benthic nototheniid species, the bentho-pelagic ice fish Champsocephalus gunnari Lönnberg and skate (Bathyraja spp.), the latter being found in over 60% of scats in October and November. The population of Antarctic fur seals at Heard Island is increasing at about the same rate as at South Georgia. There the increase is thought to be due to the high availability of krill E. superba, but in the present study no euphausiid remains were found, so the increasing population at Heard Island has been supported on a diet of fish. Whether this population increase can be sustained in future on a diet of fish is arguable. Trial fishing around Heard Island indicates that one of the major dietary items of the seals (C. gunnari) is of probable commercial importance and therefore any plans for the establishment of a fishery on Heard Island grounds must be considered in this light.

For the first time complete swath bathymetric maps of central and eastern Bransfield basins are presented at a medium scale and detailed morphological descriptions are provided. Bathymetry reveals morphological structures which provide important information about the structure, volcanism, and kinematics of these basins. The central basin is dominated by two roughly orthogonal sets of extensional faults (N065° the main set and N145° the secondary set), displays several discontinuous along-axis large volcanic cones and ridges trending about N059°, and undergoes extension roughly normal to the basin. The structure of the eastern basin has a roughly rhomboidal pattern (fault sets along N053° and N103°), displays four deep troughs and a much smaller amount of volcanism than the central basin, and is affected by extension with a significant sinistral strike-slip component.

Published and unpublished data are used to investigate possible mechanisms of species diversification in two key groups of Antarctic organisms: the Notothenioidei and the Euphausiidae. Species distributions are mapped onto molecular phylogenies, and this evidence is interpreted in light of the various ecological and historical factors which characterize the Southern Ocean. The joint effect of diverse agents (vicariance, “jump” dispersal) appears to be determinant in several cases for species divergence. A review of results from population genetics studies, together with new molecular evidence, confirm the importance of physical barriers (oceanographic fronts) in reducing migration, thereby promoting speciation, at least in notothenioids.

The stomach contents of demersal fish in late January 1982 were analysed. Samples were taken at 100, 300 and 500 m depth south of Elephant Island, Bransfield Strait and north of Livingston Island, and at 800 m to the east of Smith Island. Fifty four taxa of fish belonging to 11 families were collected. The diets of 2101 fish representing 38 taxa were examined. These were classified into three categories, fish feeders, krill feeders and benthos feeders. Fish prey species fed on krill and/or benthos. Krill was a major dietary component for 32 (84.2%) out of 38 taxa. Gobionotothen gibberifrons was distributed at all 10 stations (100–800 m in depth) and its diet comprised krill and benthos. The present findings verify the importance of krill in the Antarctic marine ecosystem and indicate that krill is consumed by benthic fish at greater depths than previously reported.

Cycling of deepwater silicon (Si) within the Southern Ocean, and its transport into other ocean basins, may be an important player in the uptake of atmospheric carbon, and global climate. Recent work has shown that the Si isotope (denoted by δ29Si or δ30Si) composition of deep sea sponges reflects the availability of dissolved Si during growth, and is a potential proxy for past deep and intermediate water silicic acid concentrations. As with any geochemical tool, it is essential to ensure analytical precision and accuracy, and consistency between methodologies and laboratories. Analytical bias may exist between laboratories, and sponge material may have matrix effects leading to offsets between samples and standards. Here, we report an interlaboratory evaluation of Si isotopes in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic sponges. We review independent methods for measuring Si isotopes in sponge spicules. Our results show that separate subsamples of non-homogenized sponges measured by three methods yield isotopic values within analytical error for over 80% of specimens. The relationship between δ29Si and δ30Si in sponges is consistent with kinetic fractionation during biomineralization. Sponge Si isotope analyses show potential as palaeoceaongraphic archives, and we suggest Southern Ocean sponge material would form a useful additional reference standard for future spicule analyses.

Usnea species of the Neuropogon group are amongst the most widespread and abundant macrolichens in Antarctic regions. Four principal species, U. antarctica, U. aurantiaco-atra, U. sphacelata and U. subantarctica, have been described on morphological grounds. However, identification to species level is often difficult and atypical morphologies frequently arise. Over 400 specimens were collected on the Antarctic Peninsula and Falkland Islands. Both morphological and molecular characters (ITS and RPB1) were used to compare samples to clarify taxonomic relationships. Morphological characteristics used included presence of apothecia, apothecial rays, soredia, papillae, fibrils, pigmentation and the diameter of the central axis as a proportion of branch diameter. Results revealed a very close relationship between U. antarctica and U. aurantiaco-atra, suggesting that they might constitute a species pair or be conspecific. Usnea sphacelata was comprised of at least two genetically distinct groups with no clear differences in morphology. One group included the first reported fertile specimen of this species. Usnea subantarctica was phylogenetically distinct from the other main Antarctic Usnea species, but clustered with U. trachycarpa. Genetic variation was evident within all species although there was no clear correlation between geographic origin and genetic relatedness. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that species circumscription in the Neuropogon group needs revision, with the principal species being non-monophyletic. None of the morphological characters, or groups of characters, used in this study proved to be completely unambiguous markers for a single species. However, axis thickness was supported as being informative for the identification of monophyletic lineages within the group.

We investigated nutrient composition and the potential for greenhouse gas production in Antarctic penguin guano, ornithogenic soils and seal colony soils through a laboratory incubation experiment. Total organic carbon contents ranged from 0.2–14.7% and total nitrogen contents ranged from 0.05–3.60% across all the samples. Penguin guano and the soils had the δ13Corg values of -28.4‰ to -22.8‰ and highly enriched δ15N values (8.28–35.51‰), indicating a rapid N cycling in local ecosystems. The mean CO2 and CH4 emission rates from penguin guano were significantly higher than those from the soils under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The CO2-C/TOC rate indicated that the bioavailability of TOC was markedly higher in penguin guano than in the soils. These soils showed higher N2O emission rates under anaerobic conditions, indicating that denitrification may be the major process in N2O emission. The CO2 and CH4 emissions have a significant correlation with TOC in both penguin guano and the soils. Our results show that marine animal excreta are an important factor determining storage and composition of nutrients in coastal Antarctica, and that they may considerably affect current and future net fluxes of greenhouse gases in this region.