Climate studies using ice cores require knowledge of the ice deformation at a detailed level, obtainable only by integrated surveying and flow modelling. Field programs should consider model abilities and requirements at the planning stage. Strain and topographic surveys should enclose the flowlines to all boreholes and extend beyond. Only then is it possible to (1) calculate representative slopes at the drill sites and (2) use simple boundary conditions at locations where they do not affect the calculated flow near the holes. Mass conservation models, which may include a parameterized velocity field, estimate the imbalance between integrated accumulation and ice discharge. Momentum conservation models find the actual velocity field, and can reveal a more detailed flow history, but require detailed survey information for boundary conditions. A mass conservation model suggested that flow near core sites at Agassiz Ice Cap, Ellesmere Island, had been steady for more than 3000 years; however, a momentum conservation model showed that either the present transverse strain rate is much smaller than required by the mass conservation model, or the ice is much stiffer than accepted values. It also revealed transients in the flow and microclimate οf which the impact on the derived climate still needs to be assessed by integrated modelling and surveying.

A finite-element model was implemented that relates the computed flow to some field and fabric observations recorded on the Law Dome ice cap, East Antarctica. The results of the model suggest that the general ice flow is markedly affected by the bedrock topography. The zones of measured anomalous flow correlate with significant changes in the modelled stress within the ice mass. Stress increases of up to 50% above the reduced model shear stress were obtained in the models where the ice moved over a bedrock rise. Stress relaxation also occurs in the ice mass as the ice moves downward to a lee depression. There is a marked oscillation in the direction of principal stress and this is responsible for the progressive development of a set of high stress zones that are superimposed on the down-slope ice movement.

Vitus Lake, the ice-marginal basin at the southeastern edge of Bering Glacier, Alaska, U.S.A., is a site of modern, rapid, glacial-marine sedimentation. Rather than being a fresh-water lake, Vitus Lake is a tidally influenced, marine to brackish embayment connected to the Pacifie Ocean by an inlet, the Seal River. Vitus Lake consists of five deep bedrock basins, separated by interbasinal highs. Glacial erosion has cut these basins as much as 250 m below sea level. High-resolution seismic reflection surveys conducted in 1991 and 1993 of four of Vitus Lake’s basins reveal a complex, variable three-component acoustic stratigraphy. Although not fully sampled, the stratigraphy is inferred to be primarily glacial-marine units of (1) basal contorted and deformed glacial-marine and glacial sediments deposited by basal ice-contact processes and submarine mass-wasting; (2) acoustically well-stratified glacial-marine sediment, which unconformably overlies the basal unit and which grades upward into (3) acoustically transparent or nearly transparent glacial-marine sediment. Maximum thicknesses of conformable glacial-marine sediment exceed 100 m. All of the acoustically transparent and stratified deposits in Vitus Lake are modern in age, having accumulated between 1967 and 1993. The basins where these three-part sequences of “present-day” glacial-marine sediment are accumulating are themselves cut into older sequences of stratified glacial and glacial-marine deposits. These older units outcrop on the islands in Vitus Lake.

In 1967, as the result of a major surge, glacier ice completely filled all five basins. Subsequent terminus retreat, which continued through August 1993, exposed these basins, providing new locations for glacial-marine sediment accumulation. A correlation of sediment thicknesses measured from seismic profiles at specific locations within the basins, with the year that each location became ice-free, shows that the sediment accumulation at some locations exceeds 10 m year−1.

We have analyzed records of glacier-front variations, mass-balance reconstructions, temperature and precipitation data of Alpine stations, and found that the difference between summer and winter temperature in connection with winter precipitation is a useful indicator of glacier activity. Application of this parameter to the records of six stations since 1860 indicated the advance around 1920 had been preceded by a decade with frequent positive mass balances, while the period 1928–64 was characterized by increased climatic continentality and strong, uniform glacier retreats.

The emphasis of this paper is on the partitioning of solar energy in an open plane-parallel melt pond with a Lambertian bottom. Spectral radiative-energy fluxes into the meltwater and underlying ice ocean layers are calculated analytically as a function of pond-bottom spectral albedo, pond depth and illumination condition Albedo of the pond bottom is reconstructed from data on pond albedo and depth. Results of calculations are presented for melt ponds of comparatively high and comparatively low reflectivity for a broad range of pond depths and for various illumination conditions. In the 350–700 nm spectral band, spectrally averaged pond albedo and solar-energy inputs are a function of pond-bottom albedo, pond depth and illumination condition. In the 700–2400 nm spectral band, the partitioning of solar energy in melt ponds depends on pond depth and illumination condition only. The effect of uncertainty in specifying pond-bottom albedo on total energy input into the water layer is relatively small compared to that on spectrally averaged pond albedo and total energy input into the ice-ocean layer.

Recent developments of global positioning systems (GPS) have provided opportunities for rapid and frequent glacier mapping. The speed and accuracy of GPS techniques make them particularly suitable for repeated glacier mapping. Using two receivers in differential mode provides very high accuracy. In July 1995, a kinematic differential GPS survey of Austre Okstindbreen, one of the glaciers in the Norwegian national programme of mass-balance studies, provided three-dimensional positions of 2228 points in less than 6.5 h. Handling the data in a geographic information system permitted construction of a triangular irregular network digital terrain model (TIN DTM), which could be compared with TIN DTMs constructed from 1981 and 1993 surveys based on aerial photogrammetry and electronic distance measurement, respectively. A TIN DTM has advantages over the more usual grid-based DTM, which incorporates many interpolated values, although interpolation also is necessary if contours are to be derived from a TIN model. The aspect and gradient of triangular facets in the 1995 DTM have been used to produce a map which has considerable potential for detailed energy-balance studies of the glacier’s accumulation area.

Knowledge of snow properties across Antarctica is important in estimating how climate could potentially influence the mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet. However, measuring these variables has proven to be challenging because appropriate techniques have not yet been developed and extensive datasets of field estimates are lacking. The goal of this study was to estimate the relationship between field-observed snow particle-size parameters from across the East Antarctic ice sheet and a suite of spatial datasets (i.e. topography, remote-sensing data) using a principal component analysis (PCA). Five snow particle-size parameters were correlated to spatial datasets of the following five groups: (1) relief properties such as elevation and slope; (2) remote-sensing data from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors; (3) spatially interpolated data (i.e. 10 m maps of temperature and approximate snow accumulation in kgm−2 ä−1); (4) field-retrieved data on surface roughness; and (5) in situ elevation and distance from the coast. The results show that the relief parameter slope correlated best with the snow particle length and area (r=0.76, r=0.80). Further, the PCA indicated that the different remote-sensing parameters correlated differently with the size parameters and that the most common parameter in visual analysis, particle length (grain diameter), is not always the optimal parameter to characterize the snow particle size as, for example, area correlates better to slope and aspect than length.

If rain falls on a new snowcover, a water saturated layer is often clearly formed in it. A snowcover with a saturated layer is sometimes unstable; the snowcover is folded and dimples appear on the snow surface. The mechanism of this instability is discussed theoretically. As a result, we find that a snowcover with a saturated layer can be unstable owing to lateral movement of water along a saturated layer and elastic deformation of the snow layer directly under it. Then the wavelength of the instability depends on the snow density; this result is consistent with field observations.

Six multispectral SPOT images and one Landsat Thematic Mapper image of the central part of the Sør Rondane Mountains, Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, were obtained over a five year period (1986–90) and studied for their potential in mapping the glacierized surface. From the thermal IR reflectances of Landsat TM a map of ice and snow temperatures was obtained, reflecting large-scale topography. The “middle” IR and “near” IR bands (in descending order of importance) enhance markedly the variations on the snow surface itself. This can be most clearly seen in the accumulation area north and south of the range where the snow cover is abundant.

From multispectral SPOT imagery a glacio-morphological map was created. Some aspects of this map are discussed with respect to the significance of the ablation in this isolated mountain area, where the main ice stream is diverted around the range. Finally, an analysis of multitemporal images led to the development of a classification tool to quantify the extent of ablation and accumulation areas. Also, by this method drift snow could be distinguished from the permanent snow cover.

Radar profiling in the area around Upstream B camp (82.5° S, 128.7° W) was performed during the austral 1991−92 summer. About 150 km of lines covering 80 km2 along The Ohio State University strain grid were profiled. The high density of data along the profiling lines allowed us to use median filtering schemes to remove or decrease interference from near-surface diffractors. Bed and surface elevations are poorly correlated. Hydraulic-head gradients suggest ponding of water in some places and drainage from others. Reflection amplitudes vary over a range of about 24 dB, partly because of scattering by crevasses, but partly also because of real differences in bed reflection.

Detailed till-provenance studies of moraine complexes in the Wildhorse Canyon area, Idaho, U.S.A., allow inferences to be made regarding the flow paths and dynamics of Wildhorse and Fall Creek Glaciers, the two principal tributaries constituting a late-Pleistocene compound glacier. In particular, the distribution of statistically defined pebble and mineral assemblages within moraine complexes suggests that Wildhorse Glacier contributed a substantially greater volume of ice to the trunk glacier than did Fall Creek Glacier.

An initial group of glaciological reconstructions yields estimates for the equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) of the compound glacier that are consistent with those independently arrived at using other methods of ELA determination. Ice-flux calculations imply, however, that for each reconstruction the relative contributions of ice from Wildhorse and Fall Creek Glaciers were about equal, which is inconsistent with the inferences drawn from the till-provenance data. An alternative reconstruction incorporated possible orographic effects on accumulation and ablation by using different ELAs for the two tributary glaciers. Calculations for this reconstruction suggest that the ice flux of Wildhorse Glacier was about twice that of Fall Creek Glacier. This reconstruction is more consistent with the till-provenance data, and furthermore suggests that such data might be invaluable in choosing between seemingly equally viable glaciological reconstructions of paleoglaciers.

In order to determine the equilibrium line (EL) and the annual net mass balance over the accumulation area of Finsterwalderbreen, Spitsbergen, Svalbard (by detection of the 1962–63 radioactive peak from the 1961–62 atmospheric nuclear tests), we collected 14 ice cores, at elevations of 445–730 m, in the springs of 1994 and 1995. The corresponding samples were melted and filtered for laboratory gamma spectrometry. In the accumulation area, the 1962–63 radioactive layer is found well below the surface. The mean annual accumulation is not invariably related to altitude. The EL, averaged to 545 in a.s.l., leads to an accumulation area ratio of 0.3 and indicates a strong negative balance. The 584 Bq m−2 mean137 Cs deposition rate (1954–74 nuclear tests) for eight ice cores in the accumulation area is nearly twice the 340 Bq m−2 mean Svalbard value obtained from six other glaciers (at time of deposition).

An in situ gamma-ray detector was lowered down each borehole, and137 Cs levels were recorded. The counting rate is proportional to the apparent deposition rate and the specific activity. The laboratory measurements perfectly match the in situ determinations. In the ablation area, a dust layer and the associated nuclear test deposits are concentrated close to the bare ice surface of the glacier, under the winter snow layer and present maximum 137 Cs and 210 Pb contents. The dust layer acts like a filter for radioactive materials removed from the glacier and its basin by melting and water flow. The original specific activities and deposition rates at a given location are enhanced by adsorption of additional radioactivity on the dust particles. A linear relationship exists between 137 Cs and 210 Pb deposition rates. This process is almost constant for all studied ice cores. The apparent 137 Cs deposition rate for seven ice cores in the ablation area is 465 Bq m−2 (at date of measurement: 1 July 1995).

Laboratory results are presented concerning ice creep at minimum creep rate (at ~1% strain) for fine-grained, initially isotropic, polycrystalline samples. The effect on the creep rate of ice density, sample shape (aspect ratio) and size, grain-size and ratio of grain-size to sample size is examined. Provided sample density is above ~0.83 Mg m−3 (i.e. the close-off density), there is no effect of density on ice-creep rate. Results provide no evidence of a creep rate dependence on test sample length for cylindrical samples. Sample diameter, however, does affect creep rate. Over the range of sample diameters studied (16.2 to 90 mm) creep rate decreases monotonically by a factor of ~4. This effect is independent of sample aspect ratio. Experiments examining size effects in simple shear indicate no dependence of minimum flow rate on shape or size in this stress configuration. Two grain-sizes were represented within the samples tested for the effect of sample size. As expected from earlier work, no grain-size effect on minimum creep rate is evident. In addition, there was no evidence of an effect on creep rate of the ratio of grain-size to sample size.

Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS) is increasingly recognised as a valuable tool for glaciological seismic applications, although analysing the large data volumes generated in acquisitions poses computational challenges. We show the potential of active-source DAS to image and characterise subglacial sediment beneath a fast-flowing Greenlandic outlet glacier, estimating the thickness of sediment layers to be 20–30 m. However, the lack of subglacial velocity constraint limits the accuracy of this estimate. Constraint could be provided by analysing cryoseismic events in a counterpart 3-day record of passive seismicity through, for example, seismic tomography, but locating them within the 9 TB data volume is computationally inefficient. We describe experiments with data compression using the frequency-wavenumber (f-k) transform ahead of training a convolutional neural network, that provides a ~300-fold improvement in efficiency. In combining active and passive-source and our machine learning framework, the potential of large DAS datasets could be unlocked for a range of future applications.

A surge of Mittie Glacier, a 50 km-long tidewater outlet glacier of Manson Icefield, occurred between approximately 1992 and 2007. Velocities increased slowly at first, but then increased rapidly to reach a peak of 4800 m a−1 in early 1996, the highest ever reported for a glacier in the Canadian Arctic. The surge initiated at the terminus and propagated up-glacier, with a maximum terminus advance of 7.3 km between 1994 and 1999. The surge was almost entirely restricted to the lower ~30 km of the glacier, in a region which radio-echo sounding shows to be grounded below sea level. A 3 km-wide crevasse with a 150 m opening occurred at the separation between faster moving ice downstream and slower moving ice upstream. Surge initiation appears to have been triggered by flotation of the lower terminus, caused by long-term thinning of this region during quiescence.

The air-bubble formation process has been studied experimentally by using five ice cores from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Bubble volumes in firn-ice samples were measured by a classical method based on Boyle Mariotte's law for an ideal gas. It was found that the bubble volume varies with depth as a function of bulk density in the firn-ice transition layer, which is represented by an exponential function of firn density. Air bubbles start to form rapidly at a bulk density of 0.763–0.797 Mg m-3. This density (ρib) seems to be correlated with the ice temperature in the ice sheets; ρib increases with a decrease in the ice temperature. Vb shows the maximum value in the density range 0.819–0.832 Mg m-3. The corresponding porosity of the density ranges between 0.110 and 0.097. This porosity does not seem to correlate with ice temperature or accumulation rate at the coring site. These characteristics of firn densities probably affect the amount of entrapped air in glacier ice (total air content) in polar ice sheets.

Numerical experiments, where a simple ice-sheet model was coupled with sediment-deformation models, were performed to investigate the transport of glacigenic material to the western Barents Shelf during the Late Weichselian. The ice-sheet model, and its environmental inputs, has been matched previously with a series of geological datasets relating to the maximum extent of the ice sheet (Howell and others, http://www.ggg.qub.ac.uk [rp05/1999]). Additional geological data on the volumes of sediment delivered to the Bear Island fan (Barents continental margin) are available for comparison. The experiments indicate the sensitivity of sediment transport and deposition to variations in (a) the ice-stream model and (b) a variety of model parameters. Two ice-stream models were used: (1) a height-above-buoyancy model, in which basal velocity is controlled by basal driving stress and a buoyancy-induced reduction in the normal load beneath a marine-based ice sheet; and (2) a modified version of the method presented by Alley (1990) in which basal velocity is related to pore-water pressure, sediment thickness, and driving basal stress. The results of the two different models were then compared. An extensive set of sensitivity tests was carried out to determine sediment-transport response to changes in the model’s parameters. Results indicate that, using physically realistic parameters for deforming subglacial sediment, both models reproduce the volume of Late Weichselian sediment measured on the Bear Island fan. Results from both models are sensitive to (1) cohesion of the sediment and (2) the thickness of deforming sediment beneath the ice sheet. The two models exhibited different degrees of sensitivity to the sediment parameters, with the height-above-buoyancy model proving to be less sensitive to variations in the thickness of the deforming sediment layer than the model proposed by Alley (1990). The differences between the two models examined here highlight the need for a comprehensive comparison of all the methodologies for calculating basal-ice motion currently in use.