Accurate measures of effective population sizes (Ne) in livestock require good quality data and specialized skills for their computation and analysis. Ne can be estimated by Wright’s equation Ne=4MF/(M+F) (M, F being sires and dams, respectively), but this requires assumptions which are often not met. Total census sizes Nc of livestock breeds are collated globally. This paper investigates whether estimates of Ne can be made from Nc; this would facilitate conservation monitoring. Some Ne methodologies avoid the assumptions of Wright’s equation and permit measurement, rather than estimation, of Ne. Those considered here employ, respectively, linkage disequilibrium (LD) of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (yielding Ne(LD)), and genealogical analysis (rate of increase of inbreeding, DF), yielding Ne(DF). Considering breeds of cattle, sheep, horses, pigs and goats for which Nc and either Ne(LD) or Ne(DF) are known (totals of 203 breeds and 321 breeds, respectively), proportionality has been investigated between Nc and these measures of Ne. Ne(LD) was found to increase with Nc, significantly in sheep and horses, less so in cattle, but not at all in pigs. Ne(DF) was correlated with log10(Nc) in cattle, sheep and horses (53, 56, 43 breeds, respectively). Ne(LD) was correlated in cattle (73 breeds) and pigs (31 breeds) with the log10 transformation of Ne as calculated by Wright’s equation. Further verification and refinement are needed, particularly of census data, but credible predictions of Ne are obtainable by applying the following multipliers to log10(Nc): cattle 17.61, sheep 97.72, horse 70.78. For cattle and pigs, multiplying log10(Ne(Wright)) by, respectively, 40.69 and 60.09, also gives credible predictions. Such census-based estimates of Ne could in principle be generated by non-specialists and are likely to be suited to audits of conservation activity when financial resources or availability of data are limiting. The ratio Ne/Nc varied among species with an overall median value of 0.03, less than a tenth of that typically observed in wild mammals. Characteristics were also investigated of a distinct herdbook-based methodology, namely the development of Wright’s equation to take into account variances of progeny numbers to yield what has been termed here Ne (Hill). Comparison of these values with Ne (Wright) could help to identify breeds with breeding structures conducive or inimical to genetic conservation. However, Ne(Hill) requires breed-specific values for these variances, and this restricts its applicability.

Methods to measure enteric methane (CH4) emissions from individual ruminants in their production environment are required to validate emission inventories and verify mitigation claims. Estimates of daily methane production (DMP) based on consolidated short-term emission measurements are developing, but method verification is required. Two cattle experiments were undertaken to test the hypothesis that DMP estimated by averaging multiple short-term breath measures of methane emission rate did not differ from DMP measured in respiration chambers (RC). Short-term emission rates were obtained from a GreenFeed Emissions Monitoring (GEM) unit, which measured emission rate while cattle consumed a dispensed supplement. In experiment 1 (Expt. 1), four non-lactating cattle (LW=518 kg) were adapted for 18 days then measured for six consecutive periods. Each period consisted of 2 days of ad libitum intake and GEM emission measurement followed by 1 day in the RC. A prototype GEM unit releasing water as an attractant (GEM water) was also evaluated in Expt. 1. Experiment 2 (Expt. 2) was a larger study based on similar design with 10 cattle (LW=365 kg), adapted for 21 days and GEM measurement was extended to 3 days in each of the six periods. In Expt. 1, there was no difference in DMP estimated by the GEM unit relative to the RC (209.7 v. 215.1 g CH4/day) and no difference between these methods in methane yield (MY, 22.7 v. 23.7 g CH4/kg of dry matter intake, DMI). In Expt. 2, the correlation between GEM and RC measures of DMP and MY were assessed using 95% confidence intervals, with no difference in DMP or MY between methods and high correlations between GEM and RC measures for DMP (r=0.85; 215 v. 198 g CH4/day SEM=3.0) and for MY (r=0.60; 23.8 v. 22.1 g CH4/kg DMI SEM=0.42). When data from both experiments was combined neither DMP nor MY differed between GEM- and RC-based measures (P>0.05). GEM water-based estimates of DMP and MY were lower than RC and GEM (P<0.05). Cattle accessed the GEM water unit with similar frequency to the GEM unit (2.8 v. 3.5 times/day, respectively) but eructation frequency was reduced from 1.31 times/min (GEM) to once every 2.6 min (GEM water). These studies confirm the hypothesis that DMP estimated by averaging multiple short-term breath measures of methane emission rate using GEM does not differ from measures of DMP obtained from RCs. Further, combining many short-term measures of methane production rate during supplement consumption provides an estimate of DMP, which can be usefully applied in estimating MY.

In the post-antibiotics era, prebiotics are proposed as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in poultry production. The goal of this study was to compare in ovo method of prebiotic delivery with in-water supplementation and with both methods combined (in ovo+in-water) in broiler chickens. Two trials were conducted. Trial 1 was carried out to optimize the doses of two prebiotics, DN (DiNovo®, extract of beta-glucans) and BI (Bi2tos, trans-galactooligosaccharides), for in ovo delivery. The estimated parameters were hatchability and bacteriological status of the newly hatched chicks. Prebiotics were dissolved in 0.2 ml of physiological saline, at the doses: 0.18, 0.88, 3.5 and 7.0 mg/embryo; control group (C) was injected in ovo with 0.2 ml of physiological saline. Trial 2 was conducted to evaluate effects of different prebiotics (DN, BI and raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO)) delivered in ovo, in-water and in a combined way (in ovo+in-water) on broiler chickens performance. The results of the Trial 1 indicated that the optimal dose of DN and BI prebiotics delivered in ovo, that did not reduce chicks’ hatchability, was 0.88 mg/embryo (DN) and 3.5 mg/embryo (BI). Both prebiotics numerically increased number of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in chicken feces (P>0.05). In Trial 2, all prebiotics (DN, BI and RFO) significantly increased BW gain compared with the C group (P<0.05), especially during the first 21 days of life. However, feed intake and feed conversion ratio were increased upon prebiotics delivery irrespective of method used. Injection of prebiotics in ovo combined with in-water supplementation did not express synergistic effects on broilers performance compared with in ovo injection only. Taken together, those results confirm that single in ovo prebiotics injection into the chicken embryo can successfully replace prolonged in-water supplementation post hatching.

Molecular techniques are important tools for microbiological studies in different habitats, and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) has been proved to be useful for analyzing fungal diversity. The aim of this study was to use the ITS region to generate ruminal yeast profile and to identify ruminal yeast. DNA from ruminal digesta was extracted to amplify the ribosomal ITS region. The profile from the PCR products was visualized and the excised bands from the profile were identified as the genera Millerozyma, Pichia, Rhizomucor and Hyphopichia. Overall, the ITS resulted to be a simple, fast and sensitive approach that allowed profiling and identification of ruminal yeast that have not been previously described (Millerozyma and Hyphopichia) in the rumen microbial community.

Flavonoid supplementation is likely to be beneficial in improving rumen fermentation and in reducing the incidence of rumen acidosis and bloat. Flavonoids are also said to increase the metabolic performance during the peripartum period. Ruminants are constantly exposed to flavonoids present in feed. However, it is not clear if these phytochemicals can affect the activity of the gut smooth muscle. Therefore, the aim of the study was to verify the effect of three flavonoids on bovine isolated abomasum smooth muscle. The study was carried out on bovine isolated circular and longitudinal abomasal smooth muscle specimens. All experiments were conducted under isometric conditions. The effect of apigenin, luteolin and quercetin (0.001 to 100 µM) was evaluated on acetylcholine-precontracted preparations. The effect of multiple, but not cumulative, treatment and single treatment with each flavonoid on abomasum strips was compared. Apigenin (0.1 to 100 µM) dose-dependently showed myorelaxation effects. Luteolin and quercetin applied in low doses increased the force of the ACh-evoked reaction. However, if used in high doses in experiments testing a wide range of concentrations, their contractile effect either declined (luteolin) or was replaced by an antispasmodic effect (quercetin). Surprisingly, the reaction induced by flavonoids after repeated exposure to the same phytochemical was not reproducible in experiments testing only single exposure of abomasum strips to the same flavonoid used in a high concentration. Taking into account the physicochemical properties of flavonoids, this data suggests the ability of flavonoids to interfere with cell membranes and, subsequently, to modify their responsiveness. Assuming ruminant supplementation with luteolin or quercetin or their presence in daily pasture, a reduction of the likelihood of abomasum dysmotility should be expected.

Generally, <30% of dairy cattle’s nitrogen intake is retained in milk. Large amounts of nitrogen are excreted in manure, especially in urine, with damaging impacts on the environment. This study explores the effect of lowering dietary degradable nitrogen supplies – while maintaining metabolisable protein – on dairy cows’ performance, nitrogen use efficiency and gas emissions (NH3, N2O, CH4) at barn level with tied animals. Two dietary N concentrations (CP: 12% DM for LowN; 18% DM for HighN) were offered to two groups of three lactating dairy cows in a split-plot design over four periods of 2 weeks. Diets were formulated to provide similar metabolisable protein supply, with degradable N either in deficit or in excess (PDIN of 84 and 114 g/kg DM for LowN and HighN, respectively). Cows ingested 0.8 kg DM/day less on the LowN diet, which was also 2.5% less digestible. Milk yield and composition were not significantly affected. N exported in milk was 5% lower (LowN: 129 g N/day; HighN: 136 g N/day; P<0.001) but milk protein yield was not significantly affected (LowN: 801 g/day; HighN: 823 g/day; P=0.10). Cows logically ingested less nitrogen on the LowN diet (LowN: 415 g N/day; HighN: 626 g N/day; P<0.001) resulting in a higher N use efficiency (N milk/N intake; LowN: 0.31; HighN: 0.22; P<0.001). N excreted in urine was almost four times lower on the LowN diet (LowN: 65 g N/day; HighN: 243 g N/day; P<0.001) while urinary urea N concentration was eightfold lower (LowN: 4.6 g/l; HighN: 22.9 g/l; P<0.001). Ammonia emission (expressed in g/h in order to remove periods of the day with potential interferences with volatile molecules from feed) was also lower on the LowN diet (LowN: 1.03 g/h per cow; HighN: 1.25 g/h per cow; P<0.05). Greenhouse gas emissions (N2O and CH4) at barn level were not significantly affected by the amount of dietary N. Offering low amounts of degradable protein with suitable metabolisable protein amounts to cattle improved nitrogen use efficiency and lowered ammonia emissions at barn level. This strategy would, however, need to be validated for longer periods, other housing systems (free stall barns) and at farm level including all stages of manure management.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a type of pathogenic bacteria that cause diarrhea in piglets through colonizing pig small intestine epithelial cells by their surface fimbriae. Different fimbriae type of ETEC including F4, F18, K99 and F41 have been isolated from diarrheal pigs. In this study, we performed a genome-wide association study to map the loci associated with the susceptibility of pigs to ETEC F41 using 39454 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 667 F2 pigs from a White Duroc×Erhualian F2 cross. The most significant SNP (ALGA0022658, P=5.59×10−13) located at 6.95 Mb on chromosome 4. ALGA0022658 was in high linkage disequilibrium (r2>0.5) with surrounding SNPs that span a 1.21 Mb interval. Within this 1.21 Mb region, we investigated ZFAT as a positional candidate gene. We re-sequenced cDNA of ZFAT in four pigs with different susceptibility phenotypes, and identified seven coding variants. We genotyped these seven variants in 287 unrelated pigs from 15 diverse breeds that were measured with ETEC F41 susceptibility phenotype. Five variants showed nominal significant association (P<0.05) with ETEC F41 susceptibility phenotype in International commercial pigs. This study provided refined region associated with susceptibility of pigs to ETEC F41 than that reported previously. Further works are needed to uncover the underlying causal mutation(s).

The first three essential amino acids (EAA) for broilers including methionine (Met), lysine (Lys) and threonine (Thr) may greatly influence the growth of chick muscles at early stages of life. In order to survey the potential effects of those EAA on growth muscles, a rotatable three-variable central composite design (CCD) was conducted to track the interrelationships of dietary digestible Met (dMet), Lys (dLys) and Thr (dThr) for optimization of processing yields in broiler chicks using response surface methodology. A total of 60 floor pens of six birds each were assigned to 15 dietary treatments based on CCD containing five levels of dMet (0.416% to 0.584% of diet), dLys (0.881% to 1.319% of diet) and dThr (0.532% to 0.868% of diet) from 3 to 16 days of age. Experimental treatments significantly affected breast mass (BM) and leg mass (LM) of the birds (P<0.05) in which the main effect of dLys on BM was threefold higher than the main effect of dThr, and interaction effect between dMet and dLys was observed on BM (P<0.05). However, in the case of LM, the main effect of dThr was higher than the main effects of dMet and dLys and highest interaction effect exist between dThr and dMet (P<0.05). The second-order models for BM and LM were fitted by least squares regression. Canonical analysis revealed that the stationary points for carcass components were saddle points, thus ridge analysis was performed for getting optimal values of each EAA. Ridge analyses of BM and LM models showed that the maximum BM point may be obtained with 0.58%, 1.05% and 0.76% of dMet, dLys and dThr, respectively, in diet, and maximum LM point may be achieved with 0.58%, 1.09% and 0.70% of dMet, dLys and dThr, respectively, in diet. The resultant ideal ratios of dMet and dThr to dLys were 55% and 72% for BM; 53% and 64% for LM. Moreover, sensitivity analysis showed that the most important amino acids in BM and LM models were Lys and Thr, respectively. In conclusion, providing these three amino acid for BM optimization may warrant LM optimization and higher ideal ratios of dMet and dThr for breast muscle may indicate the higher importance of these EAA in this muscle than those in thigh muscle.

Studies on microbial biohydrogenation of fatty acids in the rumen are of importance as this process lowers the availability of nutritionally beneficial unsaturated fatty acids for incorporation into meat and milk but also might result in the accumulation of biologically active intermediates. The impact was studied of adsorption of 22:6n-3 (DHA) to particulate material on its disappearance during 24 h in vitro batch incubations with rumen inoculum. Four adsorbants were used in two doses (1 and 5 mg/ml of mucin, gum arabic, bentonite or silicic acid). In addition, the distribution of 22:6n-3 in the pellet and supernatant of diluted rumen fluid was measured. Bentonite and silicic acid did not alter the distribution of 22:6n-3 between pellet and supernatant nor increased the disappearance of 22:6n-3 during the incubation. Both mucin and gum arabic increased the recovery of 22:6n-3 in the supernatant, indicating that these compounds lowered the adsorption of the fatty acid to ruminal particles. This was associated with an increased disappearance of 22:6n-3, when initial 22:6n-3 was 0.06 or 0.10 mg/ml, and an increased formation of 22:0, when initial 22:6n-3 was 0.02 mg/ml, during the 24 h batch culture experiment. Addition of gum arabic to pure cultures of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens or Butyrivibrio proteoclasticus did not negate the inhibitory effect of 22:6n-3 on growth. As both mucin and gum arabic provide fermentable substrate for ruminal bacteria, an additional experiment was performed in which mucin and gum arabic were replaced by equal amounts of starch, cellulose or xylan. No differences in disappearance of 22:6n-3 were observed, suggesting that the stimulatory effect of mucin and gum arabic on disappearance of 22:6n-3 most probably is not due to provision of an alternative site of adsorption but related to stimulation of bacterial growth. A relatively high proportion of 22:6n-3 can be reduced to 22:0 provided the initial concentration is low.

A total of 50 mixed parity sows of a high-prolificacy genetic line were used to evaluate the impact of feed restriction during lactation on their production and reproductive performance and their performance in the subsequent lactation. From day 7 of lactation, sows were distributed according to a completely randomized experimental design into two treatments. In treatment 1, sows were fed 8.0 kg feed/day (control) and in treatment 2, sows were fed 4.0 kg/day. The same suckling pressure was maintained until weaning on day 28 of lactation. Average minimum and maximum temperatures measured during the experimental period were 32.1°C and 16.5°C, respectively. Control sows presented significantly higher feed intake (P<0.001) compared with the restricted sows (6.43 v. 4.14 kg/day, respectively). Treatments influenced BW and backfat thickness losses (P<0.001). Control sows lost less BW than the restricted-fed sows (7.8 v. 28.2 kg). Restricted-fed sows lost more backfat thickness than those in the control group (3.97 v. 2.07 mm; P<0.01). Restricted-fed sows tended (P<0.10) to be lighter at weaning compared with the control sows (211 v. 227 kg). The composition of BW loss was influenced by the treatments (P<0.001), as the restricted-fed sows lost more body protein, lipids and energy compared with the control sows (3.90 v. 0.98 kg, 11.78 v. 4.83 kg and 584 v. 224 MJ, respectively). Litter weight gain was greater (P<0.05) in control sows than in restricted-fed sows (2.70 v. 2.43 kg/day). Daily milk production was 19% higher (P<0.01) in the control sows compared with the restricted-fed sows (8.33 v. 6.99 kg/day). However, restricted-fed sows presented a higher (P<0.05) lactation efficiency than the sows of the control group (82.30% v. 72.93%). No differences were detected (P>0.10) in weaning-to-estrus interval and averaged 4.3 days. No effect of the treatment (P>0.10) was observed on any of the studied performance traits in the subsequent lactation, except for litter size at birth that tended (15.2 v. 14.1; P<0.10) to be lower for the restricted sows. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that feed restriction during lactation leads to intense catabolism of the body tissues of sows, negatively affecting their milk production, and the litter weight gain and possibly number of piglets born in the next litter. On the other hand, restricted-fed sows are more efficient, producing more milk per amount of feed intake.

Organic agriculture is developing worldwide, and organic rabbit production has developed within this context. It entails raising rabbits in moving cages or paddocks, which enables them to graze grasslands. As organic farmers currently lack basic technical information, the objective of this article is to characterize herbage intake, feed intake and the growth rate of rabbits raised on grasslands in different environmental and management contexts (weather conditions, grassland type and complete feed supplementation). Three experiments were performed with moving cages at an experimental station. From weaning, rabbits grazed a natural grassland, a tall fescue grassland and a sainfoin grassland in experiments 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Rabbit diets were supplemented with a complete pelleted feed limited to 69 g dry matter (DM)/rabbit per day in experiment 1 and 52 g DM/rabbit per day in experiments 2 and 3. Herbage allowance and fiber, DM and protein contents, as well as rabbit intake and live weight, were measured weekly. Mean herbage DM intake per rabbit per day differed significantly (P<0.001) between experiments. It was highest in experiment 1 (78.5 g DM/day) and was 43.9 and 51.2 g DM/day in experiments 2 and 3, respectively. Herbage allowance was the most significant determinant of herbage DM intake during grazing, followed by rabbit metabolic weight (live weight0.75) and herbage protein and fiber contents. Across experiments, a 10 g DM increase in herbage allowance and a 100 g increase in rabbit metabolic weight corresponded to a mean increase of 6.8 and 9.6 g of herbage DM intake, respectively. When including complete feed, daily mean DM intakes differed significantly among experiments (P<0.001), ranging from 96.1 g DM/rabbit per day in experiment 2 to 163.6 g DM/rabbit per day in experiment 1. Metabolic weight of rabbits raised on grasslands increased linearly over time in all three experiments, yielding daily mean growth rates of 26.2, 19.2 and 28.5 g/day in experiments 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The highest growth rate was obtained on the sainfoin grassland despite lower concentrate supplementation. Thus, it seems possible to reduce complete feed supplementation without reducing animal performance. This possibility requires improving our knowledge about organic rabbit production systems and especially grazing and animal health management.

Experimental comparisons of the nutritional value of different wheat cultivars commonly use feeds in meal form even though the large-scale broiler producers use steam pelleted feeds. The aim of this experiment was to examine the effect of steam pelleting on the performance, dietary N-corrected apparent metabolisable energy (AMEn), total tract dry matter retention (DMR), nitrogen retention (NR) and fat digestibility (FD) coefficients, and digestive tract development of broilers fed four different wheat samples in complete diets. Four European wheat samples, with different chemical composition and endosperm characteristics, were used in a broiler experiment. The wheat samples were milled through a 5 mm screen and four basal feeds containing 670 g/kg of each selected wheat sample were mixed. The basal feeds were then split into two batches and one of them was steam pelleted resulting in eight experimental diets. Each diet was fed ad libitum to eight pens of two male Ross 308 broilers from 10 to 24 days of age. Feeding pelleted diets improved (P<0.001) feed intake and weight gain, and daily water intake of the birds. Pelleting also improved dietary AMEn and FD (P<0.001) and DMR (P<0.05). An interaction (P<0.05) was observed between wheat samples and steam pelleting for NR. Steam pelleting improved (P<0.05) NR in the wheat sample with high starch and protein and hard endosperm but not in the rest of the wheat samples. Similar interactions (P<0.05) were also observed between wheat sample and steam pelleting for gain to feed (G : F) and water to feed (W : F) ratios. Pelleting improved G : F ratio the greatest in the wheat sample with high starch and protein and hard endosperm. Feeding the same wheat sample also decreased (P<0.05) W : F but only in the mash diets. Regardless of the wheat sample the values of dietary AMEn did not differ (P>0.05). Feeding different wheat types and pelleting did not (P>0.05) change the development of the gastrointestinal tract of the birds. The study showed that there were differences between four wheat samples when they were fed in pelleted complete feed, but no differences were observed when fed in mash form complete diets. Research on the interaction between pelleting and wheat chemical and quality characteristics is warranted.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of feeding two transgenic corn lines containing the mCry1Ac gene from Bacillus thuringiensis strain (BT-799) and the maroACC gene from Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain (CC-2), respectively, on growth, egg quality and organ health indicators. Expression of the mCry1Ac gene confers resistance to Pyrausta nubilalis and the maroACC gene confers tolerance to herbicides. Healthy hens (n=96 placed in cages; 3 hens/cage) were randomly assigned to one of four corn–soybean meal dietary treatments (8 cages/treatment) formulated with the following corn: non-transgenic near-isoline control corn (control), BT-799 corn, CC-2 corn and commercially available non-transgenic reference corn (reference). The experiment was divided into three 4-week phases (week 1 to 4, week 5 to 8 and week 9 to 12), during which hens were fed mash diets. Performance (BW, feed intake and egg production) and egg quality were determined. Following slaughter at the end of 12 weeks of feeding (n=8/treatment), carcass yield and organ weights (heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidneys, stomach and ovary) were recorded; organs and intestines were sampled for histological analysis. Analysis of serum biochemistry parameters to assess the liver and kidney function were performed. No differences in BW, egg production and production efficiency were observed between hens consuming the control diet and hens consuming the BT-799 or CC-2 diet. Haugh unit measures and egg component weights were similar between the control and test groups. Carcass yield was not affected by the diet treatment. Similar organosomatic indices and serum parameters did not indicate the characteristics of organ dysfunction. All observed values of the BT-799 and CC-2 groups were within the calculated tolerance intervals. This research indicates that the performance, egg quality, organ health and carcass yield of laying hens fed diets containing the BT-799 or CC-2 corn line were similar to that of laying hens fed diets formulated with the non-transgenic near-isoline corn with comparable genetic backgrounds.

The chemical composition and the energy and protein value of five batches of condensed distillers solubles (CDS) originating from wheat were determined. The net energy for lactation (NEL) was derived from digestion coefficients obtained with sheep. The true protein digested in the small intestine (DVE) and the rumen degradable protein balance (OEB) were based on the rumen degradation rate (kdD), the rumen undegradable fraction (U) and intestinal digestibility of undegraded protein (%DVBE) predicted by regression equations derived from a data set of 28 protein feeds with kdD, U and %DVBE determined in situ. The CDS is a by-product with a high, but very variable CP content (238 to 495 g/kg DM). The CP contained on average 81% amino acids, with glutamine as main component (on average 21.8% of CP) and a relatively good lysine proportion (3.0%). Further, CDS contains quite a lot of crude fat (mean±SD: 71±14 g/kg DM), glycerol (95±52 g/kg DM) and sugars (123±24 g/kg DM) resulting in a high organic matter digestibility (88.6±3.0%) and high NEL content (8.3±0.4 MJ/kg DM). The protein value showed a large variation, with DVE ranging from 122 to 244 g/kg DM and OEB from 50 to 204 g/kg DM. Wheat CDS is a rich source of minerals and trace elements with exception of calcium.

Nutritional stressors may cause negative effects on animal health and growth and lead to significant economic impact. Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ producing, mediators and hormones, called adipokines. They play a dynamic role in body homeostasis and in the regulation of energy expenditure, interacting with feeding behavior, hormones and growth factors. This in vitro study aimed to investigate how nutritional conditions and growth hormone (GH) can influence nitric oxide (NO) production and the expression and secretion of three important adipokines, that is leptin, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), by swine adipocytes. In our experimental model, mesenchymal stem cells from omental adipose tissue were induced to adipogenic differentiation. After differentiation, adipocytes were incubated for 24 h (T0) with DMEM/Ham’s F12 (group A) or DMEM/Ham’s F12 salts (group B), a DMEM/Ham’s F12 formulation deprived of nutritional components. Primary adipocyte cells were also co-cultured for 4 h (T+4) or 12 h (T+12) with or without anterior pituitary slices. To stimulate GH secretion by pituitary cells, growth hormone releasing hormone at 10−8 M was added at the start of the incubation times (4 or 12 h). At T0, T+4 and T+12, NO production, leptin, IL-6 and TNF-α expression and secretion were measured. NO increased (P<0.05) up to twofold in restricted culture conditions. Deprived medium and coincubation with anterior pituitary positively influenced leptin secretion and expression. TNF-α was expressed and secreted only in deprived culture condition groups (B, B1 and B2). Nutrients availability and pituitary co-culture did not affect IL-6 expression and secretion. Our study shows an endocrine function for porcine adipocytes. In our model, adipocytes readily responded to nutritional inputs by secretion of molecules affecting energy balance. This secretion capacity was modulated by GH. Improving our knowledge of the role of adipocyte in the endocrine system, may lead to a more complete understanding of regulating energy balance in swine.

Grass silage is typically fed to dairy cows in temperate regions. However, in vivo information on methane (CH4) emission from grass silage of varying quality is limited. We evaluated the effect of two rates of nitrogen (N) fertilisation of grassland (low fertilisation (LF), 65 kg of N/ha; and high fertilisation (HF), 150 kg of N/ha) and of three stages of maturity of grass at cutting: early maturity (EM; 28 days of regrowth), mid maturity (MM; 41 days of regrowth) and late maturity (LM; 62 days of regrowth) on CH4 production by lactating dairy cows. In a randomised block design, 54 lactating Holstein–Friesian dairy cows (168±11 days in milk; mean±standard error of mean) received grass silage (mainly ryegrass) and compound feed at 80 : 20 on dry matter basis. Cows were adapted to the diet for 12 days and CH4 production was measured in climate respiration chambers for 5 days. Dry matter intake (DMI; 14.9±0.56 kg/day) decreased with increasing N fertilisation and grass maturity. Production of fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM; 24.0±1.57 kg/day) decreased with advancing grass maturity but was not affected by N fertilisation. Apparent total-tract feed digestibility decreased with advancing grass maturity but was unaffected by N fertilisation except for an increase and decrease in N and fat digestibility with increasing N fertilisation, respectively. Total CH4 production per cow (347±13.6 g/day) decreased with increasing N fertilisation by 4% and grass maturity by 6%. The smaller CH4 production with advancing grass maturity was offset by a smaller FPCM and lower feed digestibility. As a result, with advancing grass maturity CH4 emission intensity increased per units of FPCM (15.0±1.00 g CH4/kg) by 31% and digestible organic matter intake (33.1±0.78 g CH4/kg) by 15%. In addition, emission intensity increased per units of DMI (23.5±0.43 g CH4/kg) by 7% and gross energy intake (7.0±0.14% CH4) by 9%, implying an increased loss of dietary energy with advancing grass maturity. Rate of N fertilisation had no effect on CH4 emissions per units of FPCM, DMI and gross energy intake. These results suggest that despite a lower absolute daily CH4 production with a higher N fertilisation rate, CH4 emission intensity remains unchanged. A significant reduction of CH4 emission intensity can be achieved by feeding dairy cows silage of grass harvested at an earlier stage of maturity.

Echinacea pallida (EPAL), a herbaceous flowering plant with immunomodulatory properties, has been chosen to determine the pre- and post-supplementary effects on the growth performances, bacterial community, blood parameters and immunity of growing rabbits. The same Grimaud does (14-week-old) from the studied in the first part of this study were randomly divided into two groups (n=50/group). The first group was fed a basal diet without supplementation (Control group, C) while the another group was fed a basal diet supplemented with 3 g EPAL/kg diet (Echinacea group, E). From the second parturition, 80 weaned kits (40 from the C does and 40 from the E does) were randomly assigned to four groups of 20 animals each and were fed a growing commercial diet supplemented with or without a 3 g EPAL/kg diet: the CC group (rabbits from the C does fed the control diet), CE group (rabbits from the C does fed the supplemented diet), EC (rabbits from the E does fed the control diet) and EE group (rabbits from the E does fed the supplemented diet). The dietary EPAL treatment did not affect the growth performance. Ten fattening rabbits from each group were selected to evaluate the bacterial community and blood parameters, while the remaining rabbits (n=10/group) were used to study phagocytosis and the humoral immune response. The variability was evaluated from hard faeces at 35, 49 and 89 days, and the caecal content at 89 days. The variability of the bacterial community of the EE group was higher than that of the other groups. The phagocytic activity was higher in the CE and EE groups than in the CC and EC ones (30.9 and 29.7 v. 21.2 and 21.8%; P<0.05), whereas no statistically significant difference was observed for the blood parameters or humoral immune response against vaccination (rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus) at 95 days old which the serum was collected at 88, 102, 109, 116 and 123 days old. In conclusion, no impact of EPAL dietary supplementation has been observed on the growth performances, bacterial community, blood parameters or humoral immune responses in growing rabbits, except for an increase in phagocytic activities.

A total of 16 pure-bred Iberian (IB) sows, all of them suckling six piglets, were used, eight of them in each of the two consecutive trials (1 and 2). Daily milk yield and composition were determined weekly over a 34-day lactation period. Within each litter, one piglet at birth and four piglets on day 35 of life were slaughtered. Milk intake per piglet tended to be greater in trial 2 (832 v. 893 g/day; P=0.066), but piglets grew at 168±3.3 g/day, irrespective of the trial. In the IB sow milk, the linoleic (LA) : linolenic (LNA) acid ratio averaged 14.6 and 15.2 in trial 1 and trial 2, respectively. A fivefold increase in piglet body fat content was observed over lactation (P<0.001). Most of this fat (81.4%) was present in the carcass. After 34 days of lactation, whole-body relative content of palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic and oleic acids were very close to those in the milk consumed, suggesting direct deposition. Daily deposition of LA derivatives and of LNA and its derivatives was found to be extremely low (<0.02 g, on average). Moreover, some of the arachidonic acid (ARA) in tissues of the IB piglet at birth disappeared throughout the lactating period. An overall fractional deposition for total fatty acids (FA) was 0.409. Fractional oxidation (disappearance) rates were 0.939 and 0.926 for n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated FA. The overall rate of disappearance for the major non-essential FA (myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic and oleic acids), estimated as 1−the overall fractional deposition rate, was 0.546. It is concluded that the high degree of FA unsaturation, high oxidation rate of LA and LNA, and poor synthesis of ARA from LA and of docosahexaenoic acid from LNA found in the suckling piglet might increase the energy cost of whole-body fat accretion, a contributor to the observed low efficiency of use of milk energy for growth.

Animal tissues are naturally 15N enriched relative to their diet and the extent of this difference (Δ15Nanimal-diet) has been correlated to the efficiency of N assimilation in different species. The rationale is that transamination and deamination enzymes, involved in amino acid metabolism are likely to preferentially convert amino groups containing 14N over 15N. However, in ruminants the contribution of rumen bacterial metabolism relative to animal tissues metabolism to naturally enrich animal proteins in terms of 15N has been not assessed yet. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of rumen and digestion processes on the relationship between Δ15Nanimal-diet and efficiency of N utilization for milk protein yield (milk N efficiency (MNE); milk N yield/N intake) as well as the relationship between the 15N natural abundance of rumen bacteria and the efficiency of N use at the rumen level. Solid- and liquid-associated rumen bacteria, duodenal digesta, feces and plasma proteins were obtained (n=16) from four lactating Holstein cows fed four different diets formulated at two metabolizable protein supplies (80% v. 110% of protein requirements) crossed by two different dietary energy source (diets rich in starch v. fiber). We measured the isotopic N fractionation between animal and diet (Δ15Nanimal-diet) in these different body pools. The Δ15Nanimal-diet was negatively correlated with MNE when measured in solid-associated rumen bacteria, duodenal digesta, feces and plasma proteins, with the strongest correlation found for the latter. However, our results showed a very weak 15N enrichment of duodenal digesta (Δ15Nduodenal digesta-diet mean value=0.42) compared with that observed in plasma proteins (Δ15Nplasma protein-diet mean value=2.41). These data support the idea that most of the isotopic N fractionation observed in ruminant proteins (Δ15Nplasma protein-diet) has a metabolic origin with very little direct impact of the overall digestion process on the existing relationship between Δ15Nplasma protein-diet and MNE. The 15N natural abundance of rumen bacteria was not related to either rumen N efficiency (microbial N/available N) or digestive N efficiency (metabolizable protein supply/CP intake), but showing a modest positive correlation with rumen ammonia concentration. When using diets not exceeding recommended protein levels, the contribution of rumen bacteria and digestion to the isotopic N fractionation between animal proteins and diet is low. In our conditions, most of the isotopic N fractionation (Δ15Nplasma protein-diet) could have a metabolic origin, but more studies are warranted to confirm this point with different diets and approaches.

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) measured with NIRS is known to be a valuable faecal marker when used in indoor experiments. In order to verify whether it can be used at pasture, an experiment was conducted with two trials. In trial 1, six Romane breed adult dry ewes placed in metabolism cages were fed daily with natural, freshly cut rangeland from a fertilised or unfertilised paddock for 6 weeks. Three ewes did not receive PEG and the three others were dosed with 10 g of PEG in solution form once daily until the end of the experiment to measure in vivo dry matter digestibility and PEG recovery rate for each forage quality. At the same time (trial 2), 15 ewe lambs and 14 lactating adult ewes suckling one or two lambs were allowed to graze together on the same herbage as that cut for indoor ewes. All animals were initially equipped with faecal bags emptied twice daily for collecting total faeces, and eight ewe lambs and seven adults were dosed once daily with 10 g of PEG. Faecal grab samples were collected for 4 to 5 days for each forage quality grazed. Indoor trial 1 showed that PEG had no effect on dry matter intake (DMI) or on digestibility. PEG recovery rates measured on fertilised (77.7%) and unfertilised (82.1%) forage were not different (P>0.05). PEG recovery rates measured at pasture did not differ (P>0.05) between pasture quality and animal type with an average value of 68.9%. Faecal output measured with bags or estimated with PEG and calculated DMI were not different (P>0.05) when PEG recovery rate measured at pasture was used. Conversely, using indoor PEG recovery values, significantly (P<0.05) or tended to overestimate faecal output. In conclusion, PEG could be used as a faecal marker administered at a minimal dose of 1% of DMI with a recovery rate measured under pasture conditions for pasture intake measurements on a group of animals at the same physiological stage but not for individual measurements.