A contingent valuation survey of 2000 people in Great Britain was conducted to find out about people's concerns about farm animal welfare and their willingness to pay to support legislation to phase out the use of cages in egg production in the European Union (EU) by 2005. The survey found that respondents were concerned about a range of farm animal welfare issues, and that the majority supported the proposed legislation and stated that they were willing to pay a significant increase on the current price of eggs to support it. People's willingness to pay to support the legislation would appear to outweigh the extra resource costs of producing eggs without using cages. However, possible sources of bias in the survey and the validity of the willingness to pay measure estimated are discussed. It is concluded that such measures must be interpreted with caution, but can be useful indicators of people's concerns about animal welfare issues and their preferences for public policies on animal welfare.

Would-be authors with an eagle eye will notice that Animal Welfare has recently revised its comprehensive Instructions for Authors. As well as a number of changes designed to clarify and facilitate the task of making submitted manuscripts suitable for publication without repeated and extensive revision, they may have noticed that there is a more detailed statement on the editorial policy with regard to the use of animals in work described in submitted papers.

Three types of fertility control, surgical sterilization, hormonal chemosterilization, and immunosterilization, are reviewed with regard to their potential for controlling problematic populations of carnivores. The fertility control agent and delivery protocol of choice may vary considerably according to: (i) the reason for control; (ii) the degree, urgency and duration of population reduction required; (iii) concerns about ethics and public opinion; and (iv) the status, population dynamics, social structure, mating system, size, behaviour and reproductive endocrinology of the target animals. Although they are often perceived and advocated as more preferable methods of population control than lethal approaches, it is important that wildlife managers as well as members of the public realize that the ethical acceptability of the various fertility control techniques may differ considerably - and that numerous questions regarding their effectiveness, humaneness and ecological safety remain unanswered.

In order to test the hypothesis that social parameters within carnivore societies are correlated with health status, a profile is presented of the general health, haematology and blood biochemistry of a colony of free-living feral farm cats (Felis silvestris catus). Samples and biochemical data were collected between late November and early December 1989. A higher proportion of adult males than females was found to be clinically abnormal. Social status (Central or Peripheral) had a significant effect on female mouth condition, but not on male mouth condition. Eosinophilia (34.6% of individuals), high fibrinogen levels (19.2%) and low haemoglobin levels (28.8%) were significantly more likely to occur in clinically abnormal than in clinically normal cats. Blood biochemistry varied with age and, among adults only, varied between the sexes. Haematological measurements varied significantly with age and sex. There were no haematological effects of social status in males, but in females social status affected reticulocyte, neutrophil, eosinophil and white blood cell (WBC) counts. We interpret variation in health and haematology in terms of the differences in social status and reproductive tactics.

Female laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus; Wistar, Alderley Park) were housed as singletons or groups of three in units of two cages. Units were divided by different types of barrier which allowed varying degrees of social contact across the barrier. Singletons were established either with another singleton on the other side of the barrier or with a group of three as neighbours. Single-housing among females had markedly less effect on time budgeting and pathophysiological measures than among males in a similar, earlier study. In particular, singletons showed a less marked increase in self-directed behaviours, particularly tail chasing, and a smaller reduction in undirected movement around the cage. The smaller reduction in mobility may reflect a greater tendency for singly housed females to attempt escape. Females generally showed much higher levels of escape-oriented behaviours than males and up to a threefold increase in such behaviours when housed singly. Differences in time budgeting and in the apparent significance of social separation between the sexes can be interpreted in terms of differences in socio-sexual strategy and potential mating opportunity, with singleton males responding to their cage as a territory, but singleton females seeking to re-establish social contact. Such an interpretation is consistent with the effects of barrier type on behaviour in singleton females, in which time spent in escape-oriented behaviours reflected the extent to which the barrier facilitated, or frustrated, contact with neighbours.

The welfare of transported pigs can be compromised both by physical and psychological stresses. The animals’ responses can be assessed using records of mortality and trauma, physiological and behavioural observations and, to some degree, by measurements of meat quality since this can reflect the animals' physiological state at death. These assessments may, therefore, be used as measures of animal welfare. During transport pigs show weight loss, increased circulating concentrations of catecholamines, Cortisol and creatine phosphokinase (CPK), and an increase in heart rate and packed cell volume; sometimes there is evidence of dehydration. Increased levels of dark, firm, dry (DFD)meat after long transport reflect muscle glycogen depletion and possibly indicate some element of fatigue. There is experimental evidence that transport is aversive to pigs, which may be partially due to the fact that they become travel sick. Mortality in transport has ranged from < 0.1 to > 1.0 per cent in different European countries. Mortality is higher in more stress-susceptible breeds and at higher ambient temperatures. It is increased in pigs fed within 4h of transport, at higher stocking densities and after longer journeys at ambient temperatures greater than 10°C. Pigs may be fasted long enough before slaughter to prejudice their welfare through hunger. Long fasts may also reduce muscle glycogen levels and cause fatigue. Fighting between unfamiliar animals which have been mixed during the marketing procedure is also stressful, however, longer transport may actually reduce this problem by allowing animals to get used to one another under conditions in which it is difficult to fight.

In nature, mice live in burrows with nest chambers where they breed and may hide from predators. In the laboratory, a shelter or refuge is an easily applicable form of enrichment which may enhance the welfare of laboratory mice by giving them more control over their environment. Six nest boxes made of different materials were evaluated in a preference test with male and female mice of two strains (C57BL/6J and BALB/c). In general, mice showed a preference for cages with a nest box made of grid metal as compared to clear or white perspex nest boxes, or no nest box. They also showed a preference for a cage with a nest box of perforated metal as compared to nest boxes made of grey PVC or sheet metal, or no nest box. When offered a nest box with one open side or a nest box with two open sides, most mice preferred the nest box with one open side and were observed to lie in it with their heads directed towards the opening.

The results of this study show that nest boxes may be used for enrichment purposes in caged mice, although it is not yet entirely clear what are the main features influencing the animals’ preferences. When providing nest boxes as shelters, the structure and design of this type of enrichment should be taken into account, because these may have an effect on the social structure of groups of mice.

In hedonic theories of motivation, ‘motivational affective states’ (MASs) are typically seen as adaptations which motivate certain types of behaviour, especially in situations where a flexible or learned response is more adaptive than a rigid or reflexive one. MASs can be negative (eg unpleasant feelings of hunger or pain) or positive (eg pleasant feelings associated with eating and playing). Hedonic theories often portray negative and positive MASs as opposite ends of a one-dimensional scale.

We suggest that natural selection has favoured negative and positive affect as separate processes to solve two different types of motivational problems. We propose that negative MASs (eg thirst, fear) evolved in response to ‘need situations’ where the fitness benefit of an action has increased, often because the action is needed to cope with a threat to survival or reproductive success. We propose that these negative MASs develop in response to a change in the body (eg dehydration) or the environment (eg the approach of a predator) which creates the need for action, and that negative MASs can become intense and prolonged if the threat to fitness is high and persistent. We propose that positive MASs evolved in ‘opportunity situations ‘ where an action (eg playing, exploring) has become advantageous because the fitness cost of performing it has declined. We propose that these positive MASs occur during, or as a result of, the performance of types of behaviour which are beneficial for fitness at a variety of times, not only when they are required to meet immediate needs; and that the pleasure inherent in the behaviour motivates the animal to perform it when the cost of so doing is sufficiently low. Some behaviour (eg eating) can be motivated by both positive and negative affect. Other behaviour, such as playing or fleeing from a predator, may be motivated largely by positive or negative affect alone. Our hypothesis needs to be tested, but we suggest that it corresponds well to common human experience.

The hypothesis provides a basis for predicting whether an aspect of animal management is likely to cause strong and prolonged negative affect (‘suffering’), or to prevent animals from experiencing certain types of pleasure. This distinction is important for bringing animal welfare assessment into line with ethical concerns.

The preferences of growing pigs for substrates were investigated by giving small groups of pigs a choice between two substrates in each test. The seven substrates examined were concrete, mushroom compost (spent), peat, sand, sawdust, straw and woodbark. Thirteen comparisons of pairs of substrates were tested with four replicates of each comparison. Eleven-week-old pigs (in groups of six) were placed in specially designed choice pens where they had access to two different substrates. The pigs were allowed to habituate to the pen for 1 week and at the end of week 2 the substrates were swapped. In weeks 2 and 3 the time spent by the pigs in each substrate was recorded. Peat, mushroom compost and sawdust were preferred most, with sand next and woodbark and straw being preferred only to concrete. It is suggested that growing pigs may be attracted to substrates which are similar in texture to earth.

Twenty-four primiparous pregnant pigs were randomly assigned to three handling treatments: Minimal, Positive and Negative. The pigs were moved individually to indoor concrete-floored partial stalls with neck-tethers, 2 days before handling commenced. Positive (stroking and patting on approach to an experimenter) and Negative (brief electric shock of < Is when failing to withdraw from the outstretched hand of an experimenter) handling was imposed for 3min day-1 and the amount of physical contact between handler and pig was recorded. The Minimal treatment group was subjected to routine husbandry practices only. After 3 weeks of the handling treatments and tether-housing, all pigs were catheterized under full surgical anaesthesia. The pigs were allowed 4 days of recovery before collecting the following data: daytime plasma Cortisol concentration profiles, behavioural responses to a human in an arena test, Cortisol responses to human proximity, Cortisol responses to an A CTH-challenge and immunological responses to an injected mitogen.

In the Positive treatment, the amount of physical contact between pig and handler increased during the course of the experiment, while the amount of physical contact did not change in the Negative treatment. There were no effects of treatment on behavioural responses in the arena test. The average daytime concentration of free plasma Cortisol was lower in the Positive treatment than in the Negative or Minimal treatments. The Positive treatment also showed lower total and free plasma Cortisol concentrations pre- and posthuman proximity when compared with the Negative treatment. No differences were found between treatments in total and free plasma Cortisol concentrations following an ACTH challenge. The immunological response was greater in the Positive treatment compared with the Negative treatment and tended to be greater when compared with the Minimal treatment.

It was concluded that the nature of the human-animal relationship affected the physiological stress responses of pregnant pigs to tether-housing. Indications are that a positive human-animal relationship would obviate some of the negative effects of being kept in tether-stalls by lowering the basal cortisol concentration and by increasing immunological responsiveness.

This study was designed to investigate the physiological responses induced in sheep (n = 18) by two different loading techniques followed by a short road journey. All animals were prepared with venous catheters, to minimize the disturbing effects of blood sampling, and nine sheep were fitted with heart rate monitors. The animals were loaded onto a transport vehicle in groups of three, alternately using a conventional tailgate ramp or a crate raised with a hydraulic lift. When all of the sheep were loaded, they were taken on a journey lasting 195min. Blood samples were collected in the home pen, directly after loading, and at 15min intervals during the journey. Measurements were made of plasma concentrations of Cortisol, prolactin and catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline). The results indicated that heart rate increased during loading, regardless of the method used. No changes in concentrations of Cortisol or the catecholamines were detected, although a small increase in prolactin was noted when animals were loaded using the ramp. During transport, all sheep exhibited increases in plasma Cortisol concentrations which were greatest during the first 2h of the journey. The results suggest that, under the conditions employed in this experiment, the effects of the two loading procedures were similar and that transport appeared to be more stressful than loading.

Investigations of free-living wild animals often involve capture, restraint or other forms of manipulation. There is a need, on both scientific and welfare grounds, to develop and to use less invasive techniques, especially for the assessment of health. Already some such procedures exist, ranging from observation of clinical signs to the laboratory examination and analysis of faeces and other naturally voided samples.

Minimally invasive and non-invasive health monitoring of vertebrate animals is outlined and examples are given of samples from mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish that can provide useful information.

As zoos have evolved, conservation and conservation education have become primary tasks. To achieve the maximum educational impact, zoos are enriching animal habitats so that their occupants display a wide range of activities that are attractive to the visitor, and unattractive activities are eliminated and reduced. Because public perceptions of the attractiveness of animal behaviour may not coincide with welfare realities, there can be a tension between the requirements of desirable exhibits and those of maximally promoting animal welfare. Zoo animals differ from domesticated animals in human care in several respects. These differences are discussed and set in the context of the sometimes competing aims of enhancing welfare and promoting educational exhibits. An outline history of zoo enrichment programmes suggests that the subject is in need of systematization. The range of data available for improving zoo exhibit designs, and the lives of zoo animals, is reviewed. It is concluded that fundamental data on the environmental needs of many of the wild animals maintained in zoos are deficient in many important areas. Consequently, there is an urgent need to increase such research. Zoo habitats could be excellent places for such fundamental studies, which would feed back into field studies. At the same time, habitat enrichment in zoos cannot await such research and must proceed pragmatically using the range of insights described in this paper. In particular, functional substitution is advocated as a means of enrichment wherever this can be made acceptable to the broad public; its educational value in combatting naive anthropomorphism is stressed. Naturalism in enrichment is criticized as reinforcing anthropomorhisms, but is desirable for promoting global habitat conservation.

The welfare of farm animals is strongly influenced by the man-made environment. Welfare problems also arise from reduced homeostatic capacities in animals. Feed additives, used to promote growth or to prevent diseases can alter the animals' self-regulating capacities thus affecting their welfare. The EU regulates the use of these additives within specified groups of Directive 70/524/EEC. Although these feed additives can be regarded as prescription-free veterinary drugs, critical remarks on their desired and adverse effects have received little attention.

A survey of the available literature shows that about one-third of licensed feed additives alter adrenal function in vitro. Reports of the adverse effects of anticoccidial additives in vivo suggest they can be classified under three headings: (i) substances with a very narrow safety margin (the difference between the permitted dose and the dose with adverse effects) and often irreversible effects on growth and feed conversion; (ii) substances with a narrow safety margin and largely reversible effects; (iii) substances with an adequate safety margin. The growth promoters (including antibiotic growth promoters) can - on the basis of their adverse effects - be classified into two groups: (i) substances with a very narrow safety margin; and (ii) substances with an adequate safety margin.

On the one hand, animal welfare considerations require use of disease-preventing additives, but on the other hand, they also demand discontinuation of current practices. Judicious use of additives can add to animal welfare. However, their unlimited use to obscure defects in husbandry is detrimental to animal welfare. A major obstacle to the judicious use of feed additives, is the lack of published, unbiased information on their efficacy and safety for farm animals.

Modern zoos are increasingly successful in maintaining and breeding exotic species. Many of the animals bred in captivity cannot be housed in their natal zoo nor in other recognized zoos in the region. These ‘surplus ‘ animals create a problem as zoos only have limited space at their disposal. The options open in this situation are to avoid the problem by preventing the animals from breeding (sterilization or contraception) or to dispose of the surplus animals (euthanasia; or transfer either to institutions not recognized by any national zoo federation or to a zoo outside the region, possibly using the services of an animal dealer). The pros and cons of all these options are evaluated in terms of practicality, welfare and ethics. In many cases, the judicious use of a combination of contraception and euthanasia would seem the most acceptable choice from an animal welfare point of view. Nevertheless, it is believed that considerably more research is needed into the methods and welfare aspects of contraception and sterilization.

Many of Australia's nocturnal mammals are rare or endangered in the wild. The behavioural integrity of captive populations of endangered species can be maintained through the application of environmental enrichment techniques. This study investigated the effectiveness of feeding enrichment in promoting behavioural diversity, enclosure usage and species-typical behaviours in the ghost bat (Macroderma gigas) and the yellow-bellied glider (Petaurus australis). Animals were observed for 300 min day-1 over three consecutive time periods: baseline (12 non-consecutive days); enrichment: (12 consecutive days); and post-enrichment: (12 non-consecutive days). The use of a live insect dispenser decreased grooming and increased out-of-sight and social behaviour in the ghost bat. Artificial gum trees promoted species-typical behaviours in the yellow-bellied glider. Enrichment for nocturnal mammals had variable results and different welfare implications for these animals.

A device for analysing mouse behaviour which is based on recording the movements of the animal in a balance test cage has been developed. The amplitude patterns provoked by the movements of the animal correlate with behavioural patterns. The system not only allows differentiation between five behavioural categories: resting, grooming, eating, locomotion and climbing - but also indicates the location of the animal in its cage. Upon validation, the system has proven to be a reliable and time-saving device for the non-invasive recording of behavioural patterns in the mouse.

The frequency, intensity and location of fence line pacing were observed daily, in four groups of six farmed red deer hinds, over a 3-week period at calving. The groups were confined in neighbouring paddocks (5000m2 in area; two containing a wooden shelter) adjacent to deer yards containing an observation hide. At 1100h, a person entered each paddock to weigh, sex and tag newborn calves.

Pacing (moving parallel to and within 0.5m of a fence line) was mainly at walking speed, and its frequency differed according to the time relative to parturition. It was recorded in 13.6 (± 1.09) per cent of observations during the period 2-4 to days before calving, increased to 27.6 (± 1.9)per cent on the day before birth and then declined to 4.6 (± 0.39) per cent for the period of 0-3 days after calving. Pacing relative to total movement was greater before (65.7%) than after (43.5%) parturition (SED 3.7%; P < 0.001), indicating that it was not just a consequence of greater activity before birth. The hinds were observed to be grouped together rather than distributed randomly, but when some of the hinds were pacing, groups were spread out over more quarters of the paddock than when none were pacing (P < 0.001). However, there was no definite suggestion of avoidance of other deer. Within each group, most pacing occurred along certain fence lines, but no general pattern was observed. Regardless of whether hinds had given birth or not, there were graded increases in pacing depending on the degree of human presence (not present<within deer yards <visible<in paddock; P < 0.05); and deer favoured areas distant from human presence (P < 0.01). The findings in relation to fence line pacing and location support suggestions that human interference at calving should be minimized, but did not indicate which environmental features were responsible for this motivational drive.

To assess the welfare of red deer (Cervus elaphus) confined at pasture or in indoor housing over winter, behaviour, productivity, skin damage and adrenal response to ACTH challenge were measured in six groups of eight weaner hinds over 91 days from June to September 1990 in Otago, New Zealand. The hinds were confined either indoors (I), indoors with daily exercise (IE), or outdoors (O); (n - 2 groups to each treatment). All groups were fed concentrate ad libitum plus 100g lucerne head−1 day−1.

Indoor confinement was associated with a greater incidence of nosing/chewing other hinds, aggression, chewing of the enclosure, and closer distances between individuals, compared with outdoor confinement (P < 0.05). Ad libitum provision of hay over a 2-week period reduced the incidence of chewing of indoor enclosures (P <0.01). Weight gain was greater for indoor groups than outdoor groups in August and September (P <0.05) and overall weight gains for indoor groups (from two weeks into the study, until the end) were higher for the exercise treatment (P <0.05). Intake of concentrates did not differ significantly between treatments. Skin damage was greater for indoor than outdoor groups (P <0.05), and positively related to weight gain (P <0.01) and receiving aggression (P <0.01), which in turn was negatively related to liveweight (P < 0.001). A negative relationship was found between pre-challenge levels of plasma Cortisol and the number of aggressive interactions received (P < 0.05). Pre-challenge Cortisol was greater for IE than I (P < 0.05), and the increase in Cortisol post-challenge was greater for outdoor groups than indoor groups (P <0.01). Conclusions were that indoor confinement had a positive effect on weight gain, but increased aggression and skin damage, indicating that the deer were compromised socially. Provision of ample forage reduced chewing of the walls. The slightly greater weight gain in IE compared with I deserves further investigation.