The aim of this study was to examine the effects of roughage and shelter on certain welfare indicators in growing pigs that have access to ample straw and space. The effects of the two treatments were evaluated both by recording the pigs’ use of the various areas of the pen and by measuring the frequency of two specific behaviours, ‘aggression’ and ‘play’, that are considered to be significant indicators of welfare in pigs. Seven replicates were used, each involving 96 pigs. The pigs were randomly allocated to eight experimental pens at 10 weeks of age, and were observed from 13 to 22 weeks of age. The two treatments, roughage and shelter, were distributed according to a 2 x 2 design in the pigs’ outdoor runs, four of which were located on each side of the barn (north side versus south side). The pigs spent most of their time in the straw-provided areas, and the frequency of their aggressive behaviour was also the highest in these areas, suggesting that these locations were the most attractive to the pigs. The pigs with access to roughage showed a lower frequency of aggression (P < 0.05) and spent more time in the outdoor area where the roughage was placed than those pigs with no access to roughage (P < 0.05). No other effects of treatment were found on the length of time spent in the different pen locations. Play frequency decreased with age (P < 0.05) and with increasing temperature (P < 0.01). Moreover, when housed on the south side of the building, the pigs with access to shelter played more than those without (2.0 versus 1.0 events per hour [SE = 0.3]; P < 0.05); this suggests that the opportunity to regulate the body temperature by use of shade results in improved welfare. In conclusion, the pigs’ behaviour indicated that their welfare was improved by free access to roughage and shelter.

Childhood experiences of animals and current attitudes towards animals were assessed using a questionnaire, which was completed by 227 Japanese students and 174 British students. Pet ownership in childhood, as well as contact with other animals and negative experiences of pets, were used as the independent variables; current attitudes towards pets and other animals were the dependent variables. There were some differences between Japan and the UK: in childhood, the British students had had significantly more pets and more animal-related experiences, such as visiting animal shelters and livestock farms, than had the Japanese students. Their current attitudes were also more positive, and they showed a greater interest in animal welfare issues than did the Japanese students. In both countries there was a positive association between childhood pet-keeping and current favourable attitudes to pets, as measured by the Pet Attitude Scale. Open-ended responses also suggested that the roles of pets for children are perceived in similar ways in Japan and the UK. Adult attitudes to pets and interest in animal welfare seem to be greatly influenced in both countries by childhood experiences of animals, including pets, and may therefore be a general phenomenon.

One aim of environmental enrichment techniques is to replicate ‘wild-like’ behaviour in captivity. In this study, three captive troops of Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) were each observed for 100 h in large naturalistic enclosures. Activity budgets constructed from these observations were compared with published data collected from wild troops in the DuaSudara Nature Reserve, Sulawesi (O ‘Brien & Kinnaird 1997). No significant difference was found between the activity budgets of the wild and the captive macaques, although social, resting and feeding behaviours were significantly different between zoos. There was more rest and less movement and feeding in captivity, although these differences were not significant. The relatively large number of individuals, the wide variety of age-sex classes and the large and complex naturalistic enclosures provided for them may have been important factors in promoting wild-like behaviour. This study shows that captive primates can exhibit wild-type activity budgets.

There is some evidence that rats benefit from social housing and from some forms of environmental enrichment, such as platforms and shelters. It is less clear whether they benefit from more spacious cages. There is a lack of information about the relative benefits of social contact, enrichment and increased space, because existing studies tend to concentrate on only one of these variables at a time. The current experiment used economic demand procedures as a method to compare, on a single scale, qualitatively different environments with a standard home cage. The data indicate that rats show a high demand for social contact, and a low demand for a larger cage or one containing pillars or novel objects. This finding suggests that social housing of laboratory rats should be strongly advocated.

The effects on stickling lambs of two stocking densities during transport (high stocking density: eight lambs per m2; low stocking density: four lambs per m2) and two periods of lairage before slaughter (1.5 h and 3 h) were studied. The behaviour of lambs transported for short-duration journeys at the two stocking densities was recorded. At slaughter, blood samples were obtained after a lairage period and some physiological parameters related to stress were analysed: lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase (CK), calcium (Ca2+), Cortisol, and packed cell volume (PCV). There was a significant effect of stocking density on lambs’ behaviour during transit. The number of lambs walking was greater at low than at high density (84 and 20 observations, respectively: P < 0.001) whilst the number standing was lower at low density (852 and 366 observations, respectively). There was a significant effect (P < 0.001) of stocking density on the plasma concentration of LDH. The length of the period of lairage significantly affected plasma concentrations of LDH (P < 0.001), CK (P < 0.05), Ca2+ (P < 0.001) and Cortisol (P < 0.05), as well as PCV (P < 0.01). The results show that stocking density affects the lambs’ behaviour during transport. After the longer lairage period, plasma Cortisol concentration is lower; meanwhile, the activity of LDH and CK is higher.

A case study is described in which a high incidence of lameness in broiler chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) is associated with rearing to 84 days of age; broilers are normally slaughtered at less than 50 days of age. A sample of 185 birds was scored for walking ability, and 24 birds from this group were assessed for dehydration by measuring plasma osmolality. The proportion of the group having gait abnormalities was compared with that recorded during a recent survey of Danish flocks and was found to be higher. A relationship is established between the degree of gait impairment and the level of dehydration. The degree of dehydration is related to the findings for plasma osmolality from previous research, and the results indicate that some of the birds in this case may have been deprived of access to water for periods in excess of 60 hours.

The return to consciousness of 24 electrically stunned lambs was assessed by measurement of physiological reflexes and electroencephalography (EEG) recordings. The physical activity of the lambs after head-only electrical stunning included one tonic phase and two clonic phases. The tonic phase began immediately after the stun and ended 10 s after the stun; the first clonic phase started immediately after the tonic phase and ended 36 s after the stun, and the second clonic phase started immediately after the first clonic phase and ended 70 s after the stun. During the tonic phase and the first clonic phase, electrical activity recordings of the brain showed a dramatic increase in the relative power spectra of alpha and beta frequencies. Both frequencies returned to pre-stun levels with the end of the first clonic phase. During the second clonic phase, the relative power spectrum of theta frequency was higher than that before stunning. These results suggest that during the tonic phase and the first clonic phase, the animal was unconscious, whereas during the second clonic phase the return of some conscious function began. Spontaneous breathing returned at about 29 s post-stun, whereas the corneal reflex returned at about 38 s. It is therefore suggested that the return of spontaneous breathing is the safest indicator that the animal is close to recovering consciousness.

A total of 107 ear samples from all the pigs that died during transport or lairage at two commercial abattoirs were collected during two months (February and July), in order to determine their halothane genotype (NN, Nn or nn). The frequencies of the three halothane genotypes among dead pigs were significantly different (P < 0.001), being 4.7%, 24.3% and 71.0% for NN, Nn and nn individuals, respectively. The frequencies of pre-slaughter deaths within each genotype were estimated to be 0.02%, 0.09% and 2.29% for NN, Nn and nn genotypes, respectively. According to these results, the removal of both nn and Nn genotypes would give rise to an eleven-fold reduction in the pre-slaughter mortality rate (from 0.22% to 0.02%). It is therefore suggested that, from an animal welfare point of view, the elimination of the halothane gene in existing breeding schemes would have a major beneficial impact.

Reversible contraceptives, such as melengestrol acetate (MGA) implants, have become an invaluable tool that captive-animal managers use to maintain various species in social groupings while avoiding unwanted pregnancies. The American Zoo and Aquarium Contraception Advisory Group (AZA CAG) monitors the efficacy, reversibility, and safety of contraceptives used in captive exotic mammals worldwide. Because so few data exist on contraceptive efficacy and safety in exotic species, it is critical that evaluations reflect an understanding of the mechanism of action of the active ingredient as well as of the delivery system. The following discussion addresses the concerns of the CAG over the manner in which De Vleeschouwer et al (Animal Welfare 2000, 9: 251-271) analysed MGA implant reversibility data in golden-headed lion tamarins.

Although it is known that many birds possess ultraviolet (UV)-sensitive vision, most commercially housed poultry species, as well as species held in zoos, laboratories, or bred for show, are maintained under lighting that is deficient in UV wavelengths compared with normal daylight. UV-sensitive vision has been shown to be important in both foraging and mate-choice decisions. UV-poor conditions, in which information in this waveband is eliminated, could, therefore, present an important welfare issue. Eight European starlings were given a series of preference tests (eight hours per trial, for six days), in which they could choose to feed in one of four channels. Four experimental trials were carried out, during which the channels were covered in either UV-transmitting (UV+) or UV-blocking (UV-) filters, to determine whether birds had an initial preference for feeding in UV-rich environments and whether there was any change in their preference over time. There was an initial preference for the UV+ environment, but this preference declined very rapidly with familiarity, and was absent by the final trial. These results imply that starlings can rapidly adjust their feeding behaviour if faced with unfamiliar light environments and that any initial behavioural changes attributable to UV-deficient environments may be short-lived. However, further work is necessary to establish whether these adjustments occur across a range of species and contexts before any welfare concerns can be ruled out.

Farmed mink are known for showing stereotypies and tail biting, behaviours that are mostly viewed as indicators of reduced welfare. Among the factors that are often described as being relevant for the welfare of mink are food management systems, age at weaning, and type/presence of nest boxes and bedding. In the present study of commercially farmed mink, all of these factors have been integrated in one housing system. The occurrence of stereotypies and tail biting were observed at six Dutch mink farms, which differed from one another with respect to the number of modifications and the time since the introduction of these modifications. On each farm, 60 non-lactating female mink were observed during winter and 50 lactating female mink (with kits) were observed during summer. Mink on the farm with the most modifications spent 4.1% and 0.8% of their time performing stereotypies in winter and in summer, respectively. Mink on the farm with the least modifications spent 32% and 10.9% of their time performing stereotypies in winter and in summer, respectively. The occurrence of stereotypic behaviour in winter gradually increased as feeding time approached. This gradual increase was not observed at the farm with the least modifications. In general, mink spent less time performing stereotypies in summer than in winter. No clear differences were found between the farms for the occurrence of tail biting in relation to the modifications of the new system, although one farm showed a lower percentage (4%) of tail biters during summer. In conclusion, the farms that had introduced more modifications into their husbandry system housed animals showing less stereotypic behaviour. The results of this field study demonstrate an inverse relationship between the number of modifications and the occurrence of stereotypies; because of the experimental design, however, a causal relationship is not implied. Further work is required to investigate the impact of each measure both in isolation and in the integrated system under more carefully standardised conditions.

The rise in public interest in animal rights and welfare during the last two decades has been dramatic, and concern for zoo animals is evident throughout society in many South East Asian countries. It is essential that problems related to animal welfare are understood in order for zoos to make significant improvements in their professional and ethical standards. In this paper, I describe in detail the procedures of welfare and ethics evaluations in South East Asian zoos. Zoo evaluation is an ongoing process and is carried out on behalf of the South East Asian Zoos Association to evaluate the members of this organisation. During recent evaluations, several major and minor problems have been identified and constructive suggestions have been provided to zoo authorities which have in turn significantly improved the standards of animal welfare and ethics. Thus, the welfare evaluation procedures outlined in this paper could serve as a model for other zoos to follow — locally, regionally and globally.

The effect of transport on core and peripheral body temperatures and heart rate was assessed in ten 18-month-old Coopworth ewes (Ovis aries) Manual recordings of core (rectal) temperatures were obtained, and automated logging of peripheral (external auditory canal and pinna) temperatures and heart rate was carried out on the day prior to (day 1) and during (day 2) a standardised transport procedure. Transport produced a significant increase in the rectal temperature, which declined following unloading. Peripheral measures of body temperature also exhibited changes with transport. However, both ear-canal and pinna temperatures declined during actual transport, reflecting to some extent the decline in ambient temperatures recorded externally by sensors on the ear tags of the animals. Peripheral measurement of temperature, particularly at the readily accessible ear canal, may offer potential as a technique for the long-term monitoring of thermal responses to stress. However, further research is required into the potentially confounding effects of ambient temperature and wind chill factors.