Fifty-four lean genotype crossbred gilts were allocated at 118 days of age among three diets with different protein concentrations to give lysine: energy (g/MJ digestible energy) ratios: high (0·9), medium (0·6) and low (0·3) given twice daily at 2·9 × maintenance energy. At 160 days of age, gilts were treated with exogenous gonadotropin (PG600™) and animals were examined daily for signs of oestrus. Animals were slaughtered after the second oestrus, if they had shown behavioural oestrus, or at the age of 212 days. Reproductive tracts were recovered for counting of corpora lutea and albicantia. L gilts were lighter than M or H gilts at puberty induction (80, 95, 97 (s.e. 0·73) kg for L, M, H respectively, P < 0·001), with greater backfat thickness (10·8,10·0, 9·2 (s.e. 0·21) mm P2,P < 0·001), lesser longissimus muscle depth (57·4, 65·9, 64·3 (s.e. 0·77) mm, P < 0·001) and poorer food conversion ratio during rearing (3·87, 2·48, 2·42 (s.e. 0·098) kg food per kg gain, P < 0·001). There was no statistically significant difference in the total number of animals that responded to the puberty induction, although L had a greater latency to oestrus than H. Ovulation rate at this induced oestrus was significantly lower in L gilts than in M or H gilts (12·5, 17·3, 21·5 (s.e. 1·32), P < 0·02). A lower proportion ofL, compared with M or H gilts showed spontaneous ovulation in a subsequent cycle (0·15, 0·75, 0·77, %2 = 12·72, P < 0·005). It proved possible, by means of low protein (lysine) diets, to increase body fat reserves in breeding gilts but protein restriction in the rearing phase negatively affected aspects of reproductive performance.

Ten Scottish male castrated cashmere-yielding (C) and 10 Angora (A) goats with initial live weights of 38·2 (C) and 32·1 (A) kg respectively were used in a 112-day study in the time period August to December. The goats were blocked within genotypes according to live weight and randomly assigned to one of two treatments: either no supplementation (O) or dietary supplementation (S) with 2·5 g/kg dry matter (DM) intake of rumen-protected intestinally available methionine (Smartamine™ M, Rhone Poulenc, Animal Nutrition, Antony 92164, France) in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement.

The goats were offered a basal diet in the proportion of 0·6, grass hay and 0·4 concentrate according to their live weight. Diet metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP) concentration per kg DM were estimated as 9·9 MJ (ME) and 107 g (CP) and DM intake was restricted to 28 g/kg live weight daily. Apparent digestibility and nitrogen (N) balance studies were conducted from days 24 to 40 and 51 to 64. Measurements were made within three time periods of days 0 to 40, 41 to 75 and 76 to 112.

Angora goats excreted less urinary N than cashmere-yielding goats and had lower values for plasma urea and glucose and greater overall retention ofN, associated with a two- to three-fold greater total fibre yield. Cashmere as a proportion of total fibre by weight, (guard hair plus cashmere) varied from 0·27 to 0·43.

The main effects due to methionine supplementation were improvements in live-weight gain and food conversion ratio. Reductions in urinary N excretion and increases in N retention were recorded, which were generally greater for Angora than for cashmere-yielding goats, and were again associated with the larger responses in fibre production. Clear evidence was also obtained for methionine-induced increases in the weight of raw cashmere, although not guard hair up to day 58. This response was obtained in the absence of significant effects on cashmere diameter, although methionine supplementation consistently increased the average diameter of mohair fibres.

The influence of regular exercise training and physical activity on distribution of muscle fibre types, fibre cross-sectional areas and the number of adjacent capillaries per fibre type and per fibre (capillarization) was studied in five muscles from 48 female and 48 entire male pigs. In the growth interval from 30 to 100 kg, the pigs were subjected to one of three treatments: individual housing in pens of 2·5 m2 (treatment C), individual housing and treadmill training for 15 minlday at a speed of 4 kmlh, 5 days/week for a period of 70 days (treatment T), and housing in large pens (36 m2, 40 pigs per pen) allowing for spontaneous physical activity (treatment F). In m. longissimus dorsi, treatment F increased the ratio of fast-twitch oxidative (FTa-) to fast twitch glycolytic (FTb-) fibres, elevated the mean fibre cross-sectional area and the number of capillaries per fibre. In m. biceps femoris (BF) from female pigs, the only adaptation found was a marked training-induced (treatment T) increase in the cross-sectional area of the slow-twitch (ST-) fibres. In m. semitendinosus and BF from male pigs, treatments T and F increased the ratio of FTa- to FTb-fibres. Both training and spontaneous activity increased the proportion of ST-fibres in m. trapezius thoracis (0·48 in treatment C, 0·53 in T and 0·52 in F). Conversely in m. psoas major, treatment F increased the proportion of FTa-fibres (0·15 in C and 0·19 in F) at the expense of ST- and intermediate FTc-fibres. Spontaneous activity induced ST-fibre hypertrophy in the five muscles. For several muscles, the mean fibre cross-sectional area was significantly higher in female than in male pigs.

A grower diet containing barley, wheat and soya-bean meal was expanded at 110°C and subsequently pelleted at 80°C. This processing was evaluated in laboratory tests as well as in digestibility experiments involving 12 barrows with an average initial live weight of 40 kg. The unprocessed control diet was offered as a meal. Each diet was offered ad libitum to six pigs during a 5-week period. The 1st week was an adaptation period and measurements were not carried out. Each pig was used in two 5-day digestibility trials which were performed in weeks 2 and 4. Neither food intake, weight gain nor food: gain ratio during the whole 4-week experimental period, nor apparent faecal digestibility and apparent retention of protein were significantly affected (P > 0·05) by expanding and pelleting the diet. Processing caused an increase in the in vitro protein solubility (P < 0·05) and reduced the dietary contents of free lysine and methionine (P < 0·05) while the contents of available lysine and free threonine and tryptophan were not significantly changed (P > 0·05). Apparent faecal digestibility of crude fibre increased substantially (P < 0·05) when the diet was processed, resulting in significantly lower production of faecal mass (P < 0·05) as well as lowerfaecal moisture content (P < 0·05). These phenomena were parallelled by a smaller water consumption (P < 0·05). Apparent digestibility and retention of phosphorus and calcium were diminished (P < 0·05) when the diet was expanded and pelleted.

Female domesticated yaks were artificially inseminated with semen taken from wild yaks and the offspring used to form a nucleus breeding herd of crossbred animals. The meat production of the first generation (F2 × F2) frombreeding within the nucleus herd was assessed by slaughter and carcass dissection of males. One group (no. = 14) was slaughtered at 6 months of age and the second (no. = 12) at 18 months. Crossbred yaks were significantly heavier (P < 0·01) at 6 months (74·7 (s.e. 10·41) kg v. 59·8 (s.e. 10·23) kg) and at 18 months (150·5 (s.e. 56·1) kg v. 117·7 (s.e. 17·4) kg) than domesticated ones. The killing-out proportion (0·47) was similar at both ages and for both groups of animals. Carcass weight, meat weight and the yield of prime cuts were higher for crossbred animals than for domestic yak at both ages.

Measurements have been made of the length and diameter of the cervix and caudal ostium position in relation to the vaginal floor in 30 jenny asses of Baudet du Poitou breed and crosses. These measurements were obtained on the 4th, 5th and 6th days of oestrus and the 6th and 8th days of dioestrus. The observed anatomical modifications were mainly associated with the animal's physiological state, age and morphological type (size). The cervical anatomy of the female donkey differs from that of the mare not only in size but also in the existence of a large cervical protrusion into the vagina which can lead to the occurrence of cervical lesions during parturition or from the mechanical action of mating, especially when the female is small. This anatomical conformation also makes intrauterine ejaculation difficult whether by natural service or by artificial insemination.

Five bales were randomly chosen from a stack of 6-month-old barn-stored hay. Four 2·5-kg sections were taken from each bale and subjected to one of four different water wetting treatments, 0-min soak, 10-min soak, 30-min soak and 80-min steaming. Post wetting, the sections were shaken for 9 min under a Negretti LS45F personal dust sampler which sucked-in any particles released into the surrounding air. The sampler contents were then analysed for respirable particle numbers (particles < 5um), and the hay subsampled and analysed for water-soluable carbohydrate, N, Na, K, Ca, P, Mg, Zn, Mn, Fe and Cu. The steaming and soaking treatments all proportionately reduced respirable particle numbers by more than 0·93 of those present in the dry hay. Soaking for 10 min and 30 min significantly reduced levels of P, K, Mg, Na and Cu, whereas the steamed samples showed no loss of nutrients from the levels present in the dry hay. Thus in terms of reducing respirable particle numbers and conserving nutrient levels, steaming for 80 min is the most effective treatment when preparing hay fodder for horses.

This trial investigated the effects of virginiamycin on sow and litter performance. Virginiamycin was added to the sow diet during the period of gestation and lactation at the levels of0, 40 and 60 mg/kg, throughout two breeding cycles. Virginiamycin did not significantly affect sow weight change during gestation or lactation, or litter size and weight; there were no significant effects on food consumption (P > 0·05). However, when added at a level of 40 mgl kg virginiamycin tended to produce a better condition of sows which resulted in a significant reduction of replacement rate (P < 0·05), even though the proportion of gilts culled in the treated and untreated groups was high. The most evident result was a significantly shorter weaning-to-conception interval for the virginiamycin group at the end of the second reproductive cycle (first period, 5·9 days less than the control group, 2·5 days less than the 60 mg/kg group; second period, -9·5 days v. control group, P < 0·05, and -7·1 days v. 60 mg/kg group, P < 0·05), allowing a numerical improvement in productivity. Piglet performance was not significantly improved by the use of virginiamycin even though there was an evident trend in favour of the 40 mg/kg group which presented a higher proportion of heavier piglets (P < 0·05) and a reduction of pre-weaning mortality. A significant quadratic regression was found for weaning-to-conception interval and numeric productivity, indicating that the dosage more efficient to improve these parameters was 32 mg/kg. The results obtained in the virginiamycin 60 group were generally inferior to those of the 40 mg/kg group and also to the control group and seem to demonstrate that the 60 mg/kg dosage was too high.

Wild yak males were crossed with domesticated female yaks to produce a breeding herd of crossbred animals. The milk production of the progeny of this herd was measured in the present study. Yaks were milked once daily after prior suckling of the calf. Yaks were allowed to graze for 15 hiday on high-altitude (3200 to 3500 m) pastures. No supplementary food was given. Average daily milk yield of 1·77 (s.e. 0·16) kg and milk yield over 120 days, 212·2 (s.e. 20·2) kg were significantly higher (P < 0·01) than the corresponding figures for unimproved domestic yaks (1·53 (s.e. 0·10) kg and 184·6 (s.e. 10·5) kg respectively). The fat content of milk from crossbred yaks, 52 (s.e. 2·9) glkg, was not significantly different from that of unimproved animals, 53·5 (s.e. 4·1) g/kg.

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a polysaccharide preferably extracted from cockerel combs and used for medical purposes, mainly eye surgery. One way of increasing the production of HA from cockerels is to increase the size of the combs. The aim of this work was to study comb development and quantify direct and correlated responses for comb size at different ages and comb weight in two lines of White Leghorn selected for comb size at two different ages. Two lines were created, one selected for comb size at 16 weeks of age (CS16) (line E = early comb development) and the other for comb size at 29 weeks of age (CS29) (line A = adult comb size). There were between 500 and 800 birds of each line and generation and the lines had been selected for five generations. Cockerels in line E developed the combs at an earlier age and had smaller 29-week combs compared with the cockerels in line A. Genetic gain for the selection trait in generation five, measured in relation to line means in generation 1, was 58% in line E and 36% in line A. The corresponding correlated response for CS29 and comb weight (CW) in line E was 28% and 25% respectively, while for CS16 and CW in line A it was 46% and 35%. The results indicated that it is possible to increase cockerel comb size at both 16 and 29 weeks of age through selection.

Low frequency oscillatory motion (0·05 to 0·5 Hz) experienced in ships and road vehicles is known to cause motion sickness in humans and some predictive models are available. There have been very few studies of the incidence of motion sickness in pigs and none which has attempted to identify the frequencies of motion of transporters which are likely to be implicated. In this study, the vibration and motion characteristics of a commercial pig transporter were measured while seven individually penned 40-kg pigs were transported for short (100 min) journeys and 80-kg pigs penned in groups of 12 or 13 were transported for longer (4·5 h) journeys. Direct behavioural observations were made of individual pigs for symptoms of travel sickness (sniffing, foaming at the mouth, chomping, and retching or vomiting). A comparison was then made between the incidence of travel sickness in pigs and that expected in humans given the measured vehicle vibration characteristics. The low frequencies of motion measured on the transporter (0·01 to 0·2 Hz) were well within the range implicated in human motion sickness with considerable power in the longitudinal and lateral axes but little in the vertical axis. On both short and long journeys pigs exhibited symptoms of travel sickness. The likely incidence of travel sickness on the short journeys predicted by the human model was 24 to 31% which corresponds to approximately two of the seven 40-kg pigs becoming travel sick. The numbers observed were generally lower than this although the same pigs were transported twice each day for 2 days and this may have therefore reflected the effects of habituation. The incidence of travel sickness on the long journeys predicted by the human model was 34%. During these journeys which involved four groups of 80-kg pigs which were not repeatedly transported, 26% of pigs vomited or retched (13 out of 50) while 50% showed advanced symptoms of foaming and chomping. These results are not inconsistent with the human model which should form the basis offurther research.

The aim of the present study was to identify relations between stereotyped behaviours (cribbing, weaving and box-walking) and wood-chewing in thoroughbred flat-racing horses (TB) and standardbred trotters and the different management, feeding and training factors to which these horses are exposed. This was obtained by inquiries to all the professional trainers of TB and trottinghorses used for racing in Sweden. The usable response rates were 61% for trotters and 72% for TB representing 4597 trotters from 234 stables and 644 TB from 38 stables. A small field study was carried out to control the validity of the main study which gave results similar to those in the main study. There was a large difference between the two horse categories in the occurrence of behavioural disturbances. The TB had significantly more stereotypies than the trotters (P < 0·001) but there were no differences in the occurrence of wood-chewing. There were several differences in external factors between the horse categories, e.g. trotters had more opportunities for social contacts with other horses, they also had more free time outside the stable and they were trained a shorter time per week than the TB. The TB were given larger amounts of concentrate than the trotters. Wood-chewing within each horse category was explained by the amount of roughage (P < 0·05 in trotters and P < 0·001 in TB) together with other factors. Stereotypies in the TB were explained by: amount of concentrate (positive relation), number of horses per trainer (positive relation) and amount of roughage (negative relation).

Injurious pecking can be a major cause of mortality in growing turkeys, particularly if given a long photoperiod. Consequently, birds are usually reared under low light intensity (<1 lux) and/or have their beaks trimmed. The influence of an 8, 12, 16 or 23 h photoperiod at an intensity of 1 or 10 lux on the performance of intact (not beak trimmed or de-snooded) BUT8 male turkeys was assessed in a 4 X2 empirical study.

Excessive injurious pecking in groups exposed to 10 lux light intensity on >12 h photoperiods necessitated an unscheduled reduction to 1 lux light intensity. Overall, light intensity did not significantly affect food intake, food conversion efficiency, growth or carcass composition. Groups exposed to 10 lux light intensity for all or part of the trial had higher losses and a greater incidence of pecking than birds maintained on al lux light intensity.

Growth was inconsistently affected by photoperiod, with birds on 12 h having the highest body weight at 108 days but no significant differences at 136 days. Patterns of food intake were variable but cumulatively to 136 days food intake was not significantly affected by daylength. Overall, but particularly after 108 days, birds on longer photoperiods converted food more efficiently. Mortality and the incidence of injurious pecking was positively correlated with photoperiod and breast meat yield and testicular weight were greater in birds on longer daylengths. There were no significant interactions between photoperiod and illuminance.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of various factors on average pig weight at weaning on farms using early weaning. Farms were selected based on average weaning age and whether they recorded lactation food intake and litter weights at weaning. The database contained 9834 litter weights and 8903 food intake records. Average pig weight at weaning, litter size at weaning, weaning age, and average daily food intake during lactation (ADFl) were 4·9 (s.d. 1·0) kg, 9·3 (s.d. 1·6) pigs, 16·8 (s.d. 2·8) days, and 4·9 (s.d. 1·1) kg, respectively. Litter size, weaning age, parity, farrowing season, and ADFl groups influenced average pig weight at weaning (P < 0·01). Three two-way interactions between parity and season, weaning age and farrowing season, and weaning age and ADFl groups were found fP < 0·01). Average pig weights for litter sizes between six and 10 were higher than those between litter sizes one and four, and 11 and 22. Parity 1 sows produced lighter pig weights than any other parity group during any other season (P < 0·01). Average weights of weaned pigs farrowed during the summer in all parities groups were lighter (P < 0·01) than those during the autumn. Pig weights for weaning ages between 22 and 21 days during the summer tended to be lighter than those during the autumn. Pigs weaned between days 16 and 22 of age in the high ADFI group (>5·6 kg) were heavier (P < 0·01) than those in the low ADFl (> 4·2 kg) group.

The effects of fat source on lipogenesis and lipid traits of longissimus muscle, liver and perirenal adipose tissue, were studied in 48 New Zealand White rabbits, slaughtered at 11 or 15 weeks of age. Rabbits were offered diets with 20 g added fat per kg, containing either medium-chain (COC: coconut oil), saturated and monounsaturated (PAL: palm oil) or polyunsaturated (SUN: sunflower oil) fatty acids as major components. Diets did not affect growth performance, dressing proportion and tissue weights. Intramuscular lipid content was lower for COC than for SUN and PAL (e.g. 10 v. 13 and 12 glkg, at 11 weeks, respectively, P < 0·05), whereas lipid content was unaffected by diet in liver and perirenal fat. In muscle, the fat source did not influence the activities of acetyl-CoA-carboxylase (CBX), malic enzyme (ME) and glucose-6-phosphodehydrogenase (G6PDH). In liver, activities ofGSPDH and ME were depressed from the SUN diet, as compared with the COC or PAL diets. The diet-induced variations in enzyme activities in perirenal fat were lower than in the liver and were not significant. Medium-chain fatty acids were found only in tissue lipids of animals given COC. The ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids decreased in the order SUN > PAL > COC in muscle and perirenal fat. Thus, polyunsaturated fatty acids exert an inhibition of G6PDH and ME activities specifically in liver. Compared with COC, the addition of SUN to the basal diet increased total lipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids contents in the longissimus lumborum muscle, which might improve the organoleptic and dietetic qualities of rabbit meat.

A device for the collection of discrete blood samples from large animals has been developed to allow studies of physiology to be undertaken without the confounding effect of restraint. A microprocessor controlled unit (measuring 180 × 110 × 90 mm), weighing less than 1-2 kg, is mounted on the back of the experimental subject using a simple harness. A sampling line is connected to a previously inserted jugular vein catheter. Samples of blood (approx. 5 ml) are collected at pre-determined times following a start time which can be delayed by up to 48 h to allow the subject to recover from any effects of attachment of the sampler. The results from three studies suggest that the device offers a novel way to overcome a number of difficulties which occur when conventional methods are used to collect blood in experiments.

A total of 1580 pigs killed in three slaughter -plants were held in lairage for ≥ 1 h, 3 h or overnight before slaughter. Blood samples were collected at exsanguination and subsequent carcass and meat quality monitored. Longer lairage reduced stress levels based on the concentration of cortisol, lactate and creatine phosphokinase in the blood. It also reduced the prevalence of pale, soft, exudative (PSE) but increased the prevalence of dark, firm, dry (DFD) meat. Additionally, it produced progressively greater amounts of skin damage caused by fighting between unfamiliar pigs and an overnight lairage reduced carcass yield and backfat thickness. The overall conclusion ivas that a period of between 1 and 3 h rest in lairage was optimal. There was no evidence that leaner, potentially more stress-susceptible pigs reacted differently from fatter, potentially more stress-resistant animals with regard to the effects of lairage time.

The influence of high fat diets on several production traits of primiparous and multiparous rabbit does was studied in 246 lactations from a total of 61 crossbreed rabbit does (Californian × New Zealand). Starting with a control diet (diet C) with 26 g ether extract (EE) per kg dry matter (DM), two isoenergetic diets were formulated adding fat from vegetable sources up to 99 g EE per kg DM (diet V) or animal sources up to 117 g EE per kg DM (diet A). Digestible energy/digestible protein ratio (DE/DP) was maintained between 82 and 87 kj/g. Food intake decreased with high fat diets compared with the control diet during gestation (P ‘lt; 0·001), which implied a decrease in the DE intake (P < 0·01 and P < 0·05 for primiparous and multiparous does, respectively). Fat addition did not affect food intake of primiparous does during lactation (101·8,106·9 and 103·7 g DM per day per kg live weight (M)0·75 for C, V and A diets, respectively) but increased the DE intake (1121 kj/day per kg M°0·75 for C diet cf. 1325 for V and 1264 for A diets; P < 0·01) and reduced does' weight losses at the end of lactation (F > 0·05). However, multiparous does on C diet showed a greater food intake during the last 2 weeks of lactation (110·6 for C diet v. 101·5 and 98·9 g DM per day per kg M0·75 for V and A diets, respectively; P < 0·001). High fat diets improved significantly the productive parameters at the 21st day of lactation: increasing litter size (P < 0·01 for multiparous does) and weight (P < 0·01 and P < 0·001 for primiparous and multiparous does, respectively) and decreasing the food conversion ratio (P < 0·001). An increase of dietary fat content decreased solid food intake of litters during the last 2 weeks of lactation (P < 0·01 and P < 0·001 for primiparous and multiparous does, respectively) but only affected their solid DE intake slightly. In conclusion, high fat diets seem to improve the productivity of lactating does and their corporal condition during the first lactation.

The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of stimulation of pre-mating energy intake on reproductive performance at the subsequent mating or parturition of rabbit does during four successive cycles. In the C (control, no. = 59) and R (restricted, no. = 67) groups, females had free access to the M diet (9·92 MJ/kg dry matter (DM)), except from 18 to 31 days of gestation when R females were given 150 glday. In the E group (high energy diet, no. = 64), females were given ad libitum the H diet (12·19 MJ/kg DM) from 1 to 14 days of lactation, with the M diet for the rest of the time. Females were presented to the male 10 toll days after parturition during four cycles. For primiparous does, the experimental design had no effect on pre-mating energy intake, acceptance or conception rate and litter size or weight. However, for multiparous does, pre-mating energy intake was higher for the E and the R group females than for the C group females (+0·08 and +0·04; P < 0·01). Acceptance rate of the male (47·1% v. 69·0%) and weight of the young rabbits at birth (-0·09) were lower in the R group than in the other groups (P < 0·001). The mortality of sucking rabbits was lower (6·5% v. 24·7%) and conception rate for the fourth litter was higher (97·1% v. 78·4%) in the E group than in the other groups (P < 0·05).

These results suggested that increased pre-mating energy intake could have a positive effect on conception rate. However, inadequate pre-partum energy intake (food restriction) has a detrimental effect on receptivity and litter weight.

The activity ofamylase, maitase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin in suckling (15 days of age) and in 1-day weaned (43 days of age) domestic rabbits was assayed and compared with older (90 and 180 days) rabbits. It was found that amylase was active in the pancreas at 15 days (11 580 amylase units (AU) per mg protein) and increased during growth, reaching a maximum level (58 960 AU per mg protein) at 90 days of age. Specific activity (SA) of maitase from the small intestine mucosa varied depending on the intestinal segment and the age of the rabbits: activity in the duodenal mucosa decreased, while in the jejunal and Heal mucosa activity increased, during growth. Lipase SA reached a maximum level in suckling rabbits at the age of 15 days (in gastric mucosa 242 and in pancreas 608 mequiv. liberated oleic acid per mg protein per h, 37°C) and decreased sharply at weaning: in gastric mucosa down to 86 and in pancreas down to 89 mequiv. oleic acid per mg protein per h, 37°C. SA of pepsin remained relatively constant for all the studied categories of rabbits: 38 to 39 nmol tyrosine per mg protein per min, 25°C. Trypsin and chymotrypsin SA reached a peak at about weaning: 1·83 nmol benzoyl-arginyl-ethyl-ester per mg protein per min, 25°C and 40·1 nmol benzoyl-phenyl-naphtyl-ester per mg protein per min, 35·5°C respectively.