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Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Kristina Daugirdas  and
Julian Davis Mortenson
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Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
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American Journal of International Law , Volume 108 , Issue 4 , October 2014 , pp. 783 - 842
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Copyright © American Society of International Law 2014

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References

page 784 note 1 President of Russia Press Release, Ceremony Signing the Laws on Admitting Crimea and Sevastopol to the Russian Federation (Mar. 21, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6910.

page 784 note 2 White House Press Release, Background Briefing on Ukraine by Senior Administration Officials (Mar. 20, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/20/background-briefing-ukraine-senior-administration-officials [hereinafter March 20 Background Briefing on Ukraine].

page 784 note 3 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Statement, John Kerry, Secretary of State, Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 1, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/03/222720.htm.

page 784 note 4 E.g., On Self-Withdrawal of the President of Ukraine from Performing His Constitutional Duties and Setting Early Elections of the President of Ukraine, Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, Feb. 22, 2014, at http://iportal.rada.gov.ua/en/news/News/News/88138.html; Herszenhorn, David M., Ukraine Rushes to Shif Power and Mend Rifts, N.Y. Times, Feb. 24, 2014, at A1 Google Scholar.

page 784 note 5 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release No. 2013/1024, John Kerry, Secretary of State, On the Occasion of Ukraine’s National Day (Aug. 22,2013), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2013/08/213369.htm; see also European Commission, EU-Ukraine Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (Apr. 2013), at http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/april/tradoc_150981.pdf

page 784 note 6 Englund, Will & Lally, Kathy, Ukraine, Under Pressure from Russia, Puts Brakes on E.U. Deal, Wash.Post, Nov. 21, 2013, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/ukraine-under-pressure-from-russia-puts-brakes-on-eu-deal/2013/11/21/46c50796-52c9-11e3-9ee6-2580086d8254_story.html Google Scholar; see also, e.g., Englund, Will, Russia Seeks to Derail Ukraine’s Trade Deal with E.U., Deploying Taunts and Insults, Wash. Post, Sept. 21, 2013, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-seeks-to-derail-ukraines-trade-deal-with-eu-deploying-taunts-and-insults/2013/09/21/85930d4e-22e3-11e3-ad1a-1a919f2ed890_story.html Google Scholar.

page 784 note 7 See Englund, Will, In Ukraine, Skepticism Greets New Vow on E.U., Wash. Post, Dec. 12,2013, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/in-ukraine-skepticism-greets-new-vow-on-eu/2013/12/12/b005705a-6355-11e3-af0d-4bb80d704888_story.html Google Scholar.

page 784 note 8 Ukraine Protests: A New Revolution on Maidan Square, Economist, Dec. 7, 2013, at 53, available at http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21591217-has-ukrainians-defiance-presidents-european-policy-split-country-new-revolution.

page 784 note 9 E.g., NATO Press Release, NATO Foreign Ministers’ Statement on Ukraine (Dec. 3, 2013), at http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/news_105435.htm?selectedLocale=en (“We condemn the use of excessive force against peaceful demonstrators in Ukraine.. .. We urge Ukraine, as the holder of the Chairmanship in Office of the [Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)], to fully abide by its international commitments and to uphold the freedom of expression and assembly.”); U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release No. 2013/1555, John Kerry, Secretary of State, Statement on Events in Ukraine (Dec. 10, 2013), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2013/12/218585.htm (“The United States expresses its disgust with the decision of Ukrainian authorities to meet the peaceful protest in Kyiv’s Maidan Square with riot police, bulldozers, and batons, rather than with respect for democratic rights and human dignity. This response is neither acceptable nor does it befit a democracy.”); White House Press Release, Statement by NSC Spokesperson Caitlin Hayden on Ukraine (Jan. 19, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/01/19/statement-nsc-spokesperson-caitlin-hayden-ukraine [hereinafter January 19 Statement by NSC Spokesperson Caitlin Hayden] (“From its first days, the Maidan movement has been defined by a spirit of non-violence and we support today’s call by opposition political leaders to reestablish that principle.”).

page 785 note 10 Englund, Will, Harsh Anti-Protest Laws in Ukraine Spur Anger, Wash. Post, Jan. 17, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/harsh-laws-in-ukraine-spur-anger/2014/01/17/a1cdb89c-7f63-11e3-9556-4a4bf7bcbd84_story.html Google Scholar; see also U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Passage of Undemocratic Legislation in Ukrainian Parliament (Jan. 16, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/01/219920.htm [hereinafter January 16 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release].

page 785 note 11 January 19 Statement by NSC Spokesperson Caitlin Hayden, supra note 9.

page 785 note 12 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Background Briefing on the Situation in Ukraine (Feb. 19, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/02/221817.htm.

page 785 note 13 Id.

page 785 note 14 White House Press Release, Statement by the Press Secretary on Ukraine (Feb. 21, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/02/21/statement-press-secretary-ukraine; U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Situation in Ukraine (Feb. 21, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/02/221917.htm.

page 785 note 15 Myers, Steven Lee, Deeply Bound to Ukraine, Putin Watches and Waits for Next Move, N.Y. Times, Feb. 24, 2014, at A9 Google Scholar.

page 786 note 16 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release, Comment by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Feb. 21, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/f0413fbd0581c10344257c8a0057860f!OpenDocument.

page 786 note 17 Smale, Alison, Just Like His Power, Ukrainian Ex-Leader Vanishes into Thin Air, N.Y. Times, Feb. 25, 2014, at A10 Google Scholar.

page 786 note 18 Id.

19 On Self-Withdrawal of the President of Ukraine, supra note 4.

page 786 note 20 Herszenhorn, supra note 4.

page 786 note 21 Smale, supra note 17.

page 786 note 22 Declaration of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine to the International Criminal Court on the Recognition of the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court by Ukraine over Crimes Against Humanity, Committed by Senior Officials of the State, Which Led to Extremely Grave Consequences and Mass Murder of Ukrainian Nationals During Peaceful Protests Within the Period 21 November 2013–22 February 2014, ICC Doc. No. 790-VII (Feb. 25, 2014) (unofficial translation), at http://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/press%20and%20media/press%20releases/Documents/997/declarationVerkhovnaRadaEng.pdf.

page 787 note 23 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release, Statement by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Regarding the Events in Ukraine (Feb. 24, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/0/86DDB7AF9CD146C844257C8A003C57D2 [hereinafter February 24 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release].

page 787 note 24 Id.

page 787 note 25 [Editors’ note: On February 24, the UN Secretariat’s press office voiced Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon’s support for a peaceful transition: “The Secretary-General, above all, calls for an inclusive political process that reflects the aspirations of all Ukrainians and preserves Ukraine’s unity and territorial integrity. In order to bring about a stable and prosperous future for Ukraine, the Secretary-General calls for a firm commitment, by all concerned, to uphold the key principles of democracy and human rights and thereby create a conducive environment for free and fair elections.” Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon Press Release, Statement Attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on Ukraine (Feb. 24, 2014), at http://www.un.org/sg/statements/?nid=7480. In addition, to “assure Ukrainians of the support of the UN and the wider international community, the Secretary-General has sent his senior advisor Mr. Robert Serry to Ukraine. The Secretary-General expects all key international actors to work collaboratively to help Ukrainians at this challenging time in their country’s history.” Id]

page 788 note 26 February 24 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release, supra note 23.

page 788 note 27 Myers, Steven Lee, Ousted Ukrainian Leader, Reappearing in Russia, Says, ‘Nobody Deposed Me, ‘ N.Y. Times, Feb. 28, 2014, at http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/01/world/europe/russia-ukraine.html Google Scholar.

page 788 note 28 Amos, Howard, Ukraine Crisis Fuels Secession Calls in Pro-Russian South, Guardian, Feb. 23, 2014, at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/23/ukraine-crisis-secession-russian-crimea Google Scholar.

page 788 note 29 Coalson, Robert, Pro-Russian Separatism Rises in Crimea as Ukraine’s Crisis Unfolds, Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty, Feb. 18, 2014, at http://www.rferl.org/content/ukraine-crimea-rising-separatism/25268303.html Google Scholar. In 1954, when Ukraine and Russia were both part of the Soviet Union, Crimea was transferred by decree from the then-Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic to the then-Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Meeting of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Wilson Ctr. Digital Archive, Feb. 19, 1954, at 2 (Gary Goldberg trans.), available at http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/119638.pdf?v=b6fb8379a89e40622dfc4d02509a6880 (“Considering the commonality of the economy, the territorial proximity, and the close economic and cultural ties between the Crimean Oblast’ and the Ukrainian SSR, and also bearing in mind the agreement of the Presidium of the Ukrainian SSR Supreme Soviet, the Presidium of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet considers it advisable to transfer the Crimean Oblast’ to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.”); see also Calamur, Krishnadev, Crimea: A Gif to Ukraine Becomes a Political Flash Point, Npr. Org, Feb. 27, 2014, at http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2014/02/27/283481587/crimea-a-gift-to-ukraine-becomes-a-political-flash-pointGoogle Scholar.

page 788 note 30 David Gregory, Meet the Press with David Gregory, NBC News, Feb. 23, 2014, at http://www.nbcnews.com/meet-the-press/meet-press-transcript-feb-23-2014-n36721 (transcript of interview with Susan Rice).

page 788 note 31 Salem, Harriet, Walker, Shaun & Grytsenko, Oksana, Russia Puts Military on High Alert as Crimea Protests Leave One Man Dead Guardian, Feb. 26, 2014, at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/26/ukraine-new-leader-disbands-riot-police-crimea-separatism Google Scholar.

page 788 note 32 Timeline: Key Events in Ukraine’s Ongoing Crisis, Wash. Post, May 12,2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/timeline-key-events-in-ukraines-ongoing-crisis/2014/05/07/a15b84e6-d604-11e3-8a78-8fe50322a72c_story.html.

page 788 note 33 Timeline: Ukraine Crisis and Russia’s Stand-off with the West, Reuters, Apr. 27, 2014, at http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/04/27/us-ukraine-crisis-events-timeline-idUSBREA3Q0CC20140427.

page 788 note 34 William Booth, Armed Men Take Control of Crimean Airport, Wash. Post, Feb. 28, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/pro-russia-separatists-flex-muscle-in-ukraines-crimean-peninsula/2014/02/27/dac10d54-9ff0-11e3-878c-65222df220eb_story.html.

page 789 note 35 White House Press Release, Statement by the President on Ukraine (Feb. 28, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/02/28/statement-president-ukraine.

page 789 note 36 Bound by Treaty: Russia, Ukraine and Crimea, Deutsche Welle, Mar. 11, 2014, at http://www.dw.de/bound-by-treaty-russia-ukraine-and-crimea/a-17487632. Russia unilaterally terminated the basing agreements on April 2. President of Russia Press Release, Termination of Agreements on the Presence of Russia’s Black Sea Fleet in Ukraine (Apr. 2, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6955. [Editors’ note: Only one of the three 1997 Black Sea fleet treaties is available in English. See Agreement Between the Russian Federation and Ukraine on the Status and Conditions of the Russian Federation Black Sea Fleet’s Stay on Ukrainian Territory, Russ.-Ukr., May 28, 1997, reprinted in 1 Russia & Eurasia Documents Annual 1997, at 129 (J. L. Black ed., 1998) [hereinafter Black Sea Fleet Agreement on Status and Conditions]; see also Eric Posner, the 1997 Black Sea Fleet Agreement Between Russia and Ukraine (Mar. 5, 2014), at http://ericposner.com/the-1997-black-sea-fleet-agreement-between-russia-and-ukraine (reproducing portions of the same agreement).]

page 789 note 37 Levy, Clifford J., Ukraine Woos Russia with Lease Deal, N.Y. Times, Apr. 22, 2010, at A8; Agreement Between Yanukovych and Medvedev on the Fleet Until 2042: Document Text, Ukrayinska Pravda, Apr. 22, 2010, at http://www.pravda.com.ua/articles/2010/04/22/4956018 Google Scholar. According to Ukrainian press reports, in exchange for the 1997 agreements’ renewal until 2042, Russia agreed to pay an annual fee and to discount the price of natural gas sold to Ukraine. Agreement Between Yanukovych and Medvedev, supra.

page 789 note 38 Black Sea Fleet Agreement on Status and Conditions, supra note 36, Art. 6.1.

page 789 note 39 Id., Art. 8.2 (permitting such exercises “within the limits of training centers, ranges, position areas, dispersal areas, and firing ranges and, apart from prohibited zones, in allocated airspace zones by agreement with the competent Ukrainian organs”).

page 789 note 40 Id., Art. 8.4.

page 789 note 41 Id., Art. 15.5.

page 789 note 42 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Briefing on the Situation in Ukraine (Mar.2,2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/03/222727.htm.

page 790 note 43 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Statement, John Kerry, Secretary of State, Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 1, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/03/222720.htm. For Ukraine’s stance with respect to Russian violations of the Black Sea fleet agreements, as well as the 1997 Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation, and Partnership Between Ukraine and the Russian Federation, see Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine Press Release, On Violations of Ukraine’s Laws in Force and of Ukrainian-Russian Agreements by Military Units of the Black Sea Fleet of the Russian Federation in the Territory of Ukraine (Mar. 3, 2014), at http://mfa.gov.ua/en/news-feeds/foreign-offices-news/18622-shhodo-porusheny-chinnogo-zakonodavstva-ukrajini-ta-ukrajinsyko-rosijsykih-ugod-vijsykovimi-formuvannyami-chf-rf-na-teritoriji-ukrajini.

page 790 note 44 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, Final Act, Declaration on Principles Guiding Relations Between Participating States, Art. 1(a)(X) (Aug. 1, 1975), at http://www.osce.org/mc/39501?download=true [hereinafter Helsinki Final Act]. The agreement sought to improve relations between the Soviet Union and many European states, the United States, and Canada and provided in part: “The participating States, paying due regard to the principles above and, in particular, to the first sentence of the tenth principle, ‘Fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law,’ note that the present Declaration does not affect their rights and obligations, nor the corresponding treaties and other agreements and arrangements.” Id.

page 790 note 45 Id., Art. 1(a) (capitalization adjusted). The Helsinki Final Act addressed broadly the then-USSR’s relationship with Europe, the United States, and Canada. The document dealt with four categories of issues: (1) territoriality and sovereignty, which incorporated the ten guiding principles noted above; (2) economics; (3) human rights; and (4) implementation. Helsinki Final Act, 1975, U.S. Dep’t of State Office of the Historian (undated), at https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/helsinki.

page 790 note 46 Memorandum on Security Assurances in Connection with Ukraine’s Accession to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (Budapest Memorandum), UN Doc. A/49/765, S/1994/1399, Annex I (Dec. 19, 1994), at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/49/765.

page 790 note 47 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release No. 2009/1230, U.S.-Russia Joint Statement on Expiration of the START Treaty (Dec. 4, 2009), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2009/dec/133204.htm.

page 791 note 48 Letter Dated 28 February 2014 from the Permanent Representative of Ukraine to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/2014/136 (Feb. 28, 2014), at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/136.

page 791 note 49 7124th Meeting of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PV.7124, at 3 (Mar. 1, 2014), at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=s/pv.7124.

page 791 note 50 Id. at 4.

page 791 note 51 Id. at 5.

page 791 note 52 Id.

page 791 note 53 Id. (quoting request of Russian president).

page 791 note 54 Id. at 6.

page 791 note 55 Id.

page 792 note 56 White House Press Release, G-7 Leaders Statement (Mar. 2, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/02/g-7-leaders-statement.

page 792 note 57 7125th Meeting of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PV.7125, at 3 (Mar. 3, 2014), at http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_pv_7125.pdf.

page 792 note 58 Id.

page 792 note 59 Id.

page 793 note 60 Id.

page 795 note 61 President of Russia Press Release, Vladimir Putin Answered Journalists’ Questions on the Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 4, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6763.

page 796 note 62 [Editors’ note: in the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation, and Partnership Between Ukraine and the Russian Federation, signed shortly after the 1997 basing agreements, Russia and Ukraine unconditionally guaranteed the “inviolability of [each other’s] borders.” Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation, and Partnership Between Ukraine and the Russian Federation, Russ.-Ukr., Art. 2, May 31, 1997, UN Doc. A/52/174, Annex I (1997).]

page 797 note 63 U.S. Dep’t of State Fact Sheet, President Putin’s Fiction: 10 False Claims About Ukraine (Mar. 5, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/03/222988.htm [hereinafter Fact Sheet: President Putin’s Fiction]. The United States later added to its list of “fictions.” U.S. Dep’t of State Fact Sheet, Russian Fiction the Sequel: 10 More False Claims About Ukraine (Apr. 13, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/04/224759.htm.

page 797 note 64 White House Press Release, Executive Order—Blocking Property of Certain Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 6, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/06/executive-order-blocking-property-certain-persons-contributing-situation (finding that individuals and entities “undermin[ing] democratic processes and institutions in Ukraine; threaten[ing] its peace, security, stability, sovereignty, and territorial integrity; and contribut[ing] to the misappropriation of its assets constitute[d] an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States”).

page 797 note 65 White House Press Release, Statement by the President on Ukraine (Mar. 6, 2014), at http://www.white house.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/06/statement-president-ukraine; see also White House Press Release, Letter— Blocking Property of Additional Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 17, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/17/letter-blocking-property-additional-persons-contributing-situation-ukrai [hereinafter Letter—Blocking Property]; see also White House Press Release, Background Briefing by Senior Administration Officials on executive Order on Ukraine—Via Conference Call (Mar. 6,2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/06/background-briefing-senior-administration-officials-executive-order-ukra [hereinafter March 6 Background Briefing]. By mid-September 2014, approximately seventy individuals and entities had been sanctioned under Executive Order 13660. U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, SDN List Sorted by OFAC Sanctions Program (Sept. 12, 2014), at http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/prgrmlst.txt [hereinafter SDN List].

page 797 note 66 March 6 Background Briefing, supra note 65.

page 798 note 67 Id.

page 798 note 68 Carol Morello & Anthony Faiola, Crimea Sets Referendum on Joining Russia, Wash. Post, Mar. 6, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/crimea-sets-referendum-on-joining-russia/2014/03/06/d06d8a46-a5 20-11e3-a5fa-55f0c77bf39c_story.html.

page 798 note 69 President of Russia Press Release, Telephone Conversation with US President Barack Obama (Mar. 17, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6881.

page 798 note 70 White House Press Release, Press Briefing by Press Secretary Jay Carney (Mar. 10, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/10/press-briefing-press-secretary-jay-carney-31014.

page 798 note 71 Id.

page 798 note 72 [Editors’ note: See supra notes 44–45 and accompanying text.]

page 798 note 73 [Editors’ note: for full text, see Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation, and Partnership, supra note 62 and accompanying text.]

page 798 note 74 [Editors’ note: See supra notes 36–41 and accompanying text.]

page 798 note 75 [Editors’ note: See supra note 46 and accompanying text.]

page 799 note 76 White House Press Release, Statement of G-7 Leaders on Ukraine (Mar. 12, 2014), at http://www.white house.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/12/statement-g-7-leaders-ukraine.

page 799 note 77 UN Security Council Press Release No. SC/11319, Security Council Fails to Adopt Text Urging Member States Not to Recognize Planned 16 March Referendum in Ukraine’s Crimea Region (Mar. 15, 2014), at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/sc11319.doc.htm.

page 799 note 78 Albania, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America: Draft Resolution, UN Doc. S/2014/189, pmbl., paras. 1, 4, 5 (Mar. 15, 2014), at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2014/189.

page 799 note 79 UN Security Council Press Release No. SC/11319, supra note 77.

page 799 note 80 President of Russia Press Release, Address by President of the Russian Federation (Mar. 18, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6889 [hereinafter March 18 President of Russia Press Release]; see also Crimea Declares Independence, Seeks UN Recognition, RT News, Mar. 17, 2014, at http://rt.com/news/crimea-referendum-results-official-250.

page 799 note 81 White House Press Release, Statement by the Press Secretary on Ukraine (Mar. 16, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/16/statement-press-secretary-ukraine.

page 799 note 82 Id. (“In this century, we are long past the days when the international community will stand quietly by while one country forcibly seizes the territory of another.”); see also White House Press Release, Background Briefing by Senior Administration Officials on Ukraine (Mar. 17, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/17/background-briefing-senior-administration-officials-ukraine [hereinafter March 17 Background Briefing] (describing “massive anomalies in the vote”).

page 800 note 83 White House Press Release, Executive Order—Blocking Property of Additional Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 17, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/17/executive-order-blocking-property-additional-persons-contributing-situat [hereinafter March 17 White House Press Release on Executive Order] (imposing sanctions on certain named individuals, as well as any persons determined by the secretaries of the Treasury and State to be either Russian government officials or persons operating in the Russian arms trade—or determined to be persons “materially assist[ing]” or working on behalf of such persons). As of September 12, 2014, approximately two hundred individuals and entities had been sanctioned pursuant to Executive Order 13661. SDN List, supra note 65. This executive order cited as justification “the recent deployment of Russian Federation military forces in the Crimea region of Ukraine,” which “undermine[s] democratic processes and institutions in Ukraine; threaten[s] its peace, security, stability, sovereignty, and territorial integrity; and contribute[s] to the misappropriation of its assets, and thereby constitute[s] an unusual and extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the United States.” March 17 White House Press Release on Executive Order, supra .

page 800 note 84 March 17 Background Briefing, supra note 82; White House Press Release, Fact Sheet: Ukraine-Related Sanctions (Mar. 17, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/17/fact-sheet-ukraine-related-sanctions.

page 800 note 85 President of Russia Press Release, Agreement on the Accession of the Republic of Crimea to the Russian Federation Signed (Mar. 18, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6890. Signatories for Crimea were Chairman of the State Council of the Republic of Crimea Vladimir Konstantinov, Prime Minister of the Republic of Crimea Sergei Aksyonov, and Chairman of the Coordinating Council for the Establishment of the Sevastopol Municipal Administration Alexei Chaly. Id.

page 801 note 86 March 18 President of Russia Press Release, supra note 80.

page 801 note 87 Id.

page 802 note 88 Id.

page 802 note 89 March 20 Background Briefing on Ukraine, supra note 2.

page 802 note 90 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Interview [of John Kerry] with Nikole Killion of Hearst Television (Mar. 18, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/03/223667.htm.

page 802 note 91 White House Press Release, Executive Order—Blocking Property of Additional Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine (Mar. 20, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/20/executive-order-blocking-property-additional-persons-contributing-situat; see also Letter—Blocking Property, supra note 65. Over the next six months, the U.S. Department of the Treasury named specific individuals and entities pursuant to Executive Order 13662, ultimately sanctioning approximately eighty entities under that executive order as of September 12. U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control, Sectoral Sanctions Identifications List (Sept. 12, 2014), at http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/ssi/ssi.pdf.

page 803 note 92 White House Press Release, Statement by the President on Ukraine (Mar. 20, 2014), at http://www.white house.gov/photos-and-video/video/2014/03/20/president-obama-speaks-ukraine#transcript; see also March 20 Background Briefing on Ukraine, supra note 2 (“[W]e escalated [the] designations because of Russian actions through the week in terms of pursuing annexation. But we also are laying down a marker with this [executive order] to anticipate any potential Russian escalation.”).

page 803 note 93 March 20 Background Briefing on Ukraine, supra note 2.

page 803 note 94 Id.

page 803 note 95 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, John Kerry, Secretary of State, Interview with Gwen Ifill of PBS NewsHour (May 29, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/05/226890.htm [hereinafter May 29 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release].

page 803 note 96 Griff Witte & Will Englund, Russia Celebrates Crimea Annexation While Ukraine Looks to West for Support, Wash. Post, Mar. 21, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/putin-signs-bill-completing-annexation-of-crimea-as-sanctions-take-hold/2014/03/21/ef038a44-b0f3-11e3-a49e-76adc9210 f 19_story.html; Englund, Will, Kremlin Says Crimea Is Now Officially Part of Russia After Treaty Signing, Putin Speech, Wash. Post, Mar. 18, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russias-putin-prepares-to-annex-crimea/2014/03/18/933183b2-654e-45ce-920e-4d18c0ffec73_story.html Google Scholar.

page 803 note 97 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release, Speech by the Russian Foreign Minister, Sergey Lavrov, and His Answers to Questions from Deputies During the 349th Extraordinary Session of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation (Mar. 21, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/1eb0f5937a80b6b444257ca500519090!OpenDocument (“These documents are envisaged as legally formalising the reunification of Crimea and the Russian Federation and creating two new constituent entities of the Federation in full compliance with international and Russian law.”).

page 803 note 98 President of Russia Press Release, Executive Order on Holding a Celebratory Gun Salute in Moscow, Simfereopol and Sevastopol (Mar. 21, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/acts/6913.

page 804 note 99 White House Press Release, the Hague Declaration (Mar. 24, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/24/hague-declaration.

page 804 note 100 Full Transcript: President Obama Gives Speech Addressing Europe, Russia on March 26, Wash. Post, Mar. 26, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/transcript-president-obama-gives-speech-addressing-europe-russia-on-march-26/2014/03/26/07ae80ae-b503-11e3-b899-20667de76985_story.html.

page 804 note 101 UN Press Release GA/11493, General Assembly Adopts Resolution Calling upon States Not to Recognize Changes in Status of Crimea Region: 100 Votes in Favour, 11 Against, 58 Abstentions for Text on Ukraine (Mar. 27, 2014), at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/ga11493.doc.htm; see also Backing Ukraine’s Territorial Integrity, UN Assembly Declares Crimea Referendum Invalid, UN News Centre, Mar. 27, 2014, at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=47443#.VBTIUWSwLuU.

page 804 note 102 President of Russia Press Release, Termination of Agreements on the Presence of Russia’s Black Sea Fleet in Ukraine (Apr. 2, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/6955.

page 805 note 103 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Interview of Victoria Nuland for the Charlie Rose Show with David Remnick (May 27, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/2014/may/226628.htm. Nuland stated that Putin “decide[d] in about three weeks’ notice that [Crimea] was Russia’s and he was going to take it.” Id. But she also rebuffed a statement by her interviewer that Putin had actually annexed Crimea: “Let me take issue with one thing you said there, which is with regard to Crimea. Neither the United States nor the Europeans nor most of the civilized world has recognized what Russia did in Crimea. We still respect the full sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine. And as part of the sanctions that we have imposed on Russia we’ve imposed harsh sanctions on those running Crimea now and on the economic relationship with Crimea and that will continue.” Id.

page 805 note 104 White House Press Release, Fact Sheet: European Reassurance Initiative & Other U.S. Efforts in Support of NATO Allies & Partners (June 3, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/03/fact-sheet-european-reassurance-initiative-and-other-us-efforts-support-.

page 805 note 105 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Evidence of Russian Support for Destabilization of Ukraine (Apr. 13, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/04/224762.htm.

page 805 note 106 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Background Briefing on Secretary’s Travel to Geneva (Apr. 16, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/04/224918.htm.

page 805 note 107 Karen DeYoung & Anne Gearan, Diplomats Reach Deal on Defusing Ukraine Crisis, Wash. Post, Apr. 17, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/ukraine-prepared-to-offer-autonomy-to-eastern-regions-if-russia-pulls-back-troops/2014/04/17/53c64bc0-c5f7-11e3-bf7a-be01a9b69cf1_story.html.

page 805 note 108 U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note, Geneva Statement on Ukraine (Apr. 17, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/04/224957.htm; see also DeYoung & Gearan, supra note 107.

page 807 note 109 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, John Kerry, Secretary of State, Remarks on Ukraine (Apr. 24, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/04/225166.htm.

page 807 note 110 White House Press Release, G-7 Leaders Statement on Ukraine (Apr. 25, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/04/25/g-7-leaders-statement-ukraine.

page 807 note 111 Id.

page 808 note 112 White House Press Release, Background Conference Call on Ukraine Sanctions (Apr. 28, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/04/28/background-conference-call-ukraine-sanctions. These sanctions targeted “Russian government officials as well as those who provide critical support to—or derive critical support from senior Russian government officials, or so-called oligarchs or cronies.” Id. Targets included “two key members of the Russian leadership’s inner circle”: Igor Sechin, president and chairman of Rosneft, Russia’s leading petroleum operation; and Sergey Chemezov, director general of Rostec, a Russian industrial conglomerate. Id. A senior administration official added: “In addition, each of the 17 entities sanctioned today are affiliated with the oligarchs we designated a few weeks ago, on March 20th, including the Rotenberg brothers and Gennady Timchenko. Among these entities are Timchenko’s holding company, the Volga Group, and three banks—Invest CapitalBank, SMP Bank, and JSB Sobinbank.” Id.

page 808 note 113 Id.

page 808 note 114 Id.

page 808 note 115 White House Press Release, Message to the Congress—With Respect to Russia’s Status Under the Generalized System of Preferences (May 7, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/05/07/message-congress-respect-russia-s-status-under-generalized-system-prefer (providing notice of his intent to use a presidential proclamation to withdraw such eligibility pursuant to section 502(f)(2) of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. 2462(f)(2))). Obama’s reasoning was facially unrelated to the Ukraine crisis: “I have determined that it is appropriate to withdraw Russia’s designation as a beneficiary developing country under the GSP program because Russia is sufficiently advanced in economic development and improved in trade competitiveness that continued preferential treatment under the GSP is not warranted.” Id.

page 808 note 116 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Victoria Nuland, Assistant Secretary, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, Statement Before the U.S. House Foreign Affairs Committee: Russia’s Destabilization of Ukraine (May 8, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/2014/may/225773.htm [hereinafter May 8 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release].

page 809 note 117 Id.

page 809 note 118 Id.; See North Atlantic Treaty, Art. 5, Apr. 4, 1949, TIAS No. 1964, 34 UNTS 243 (“The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area.”).

page 809 note 119 May 8 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, supra note 116. Nuland then noted on May 14 that all twenty-eight NATO countries had joined the effort to support Ukraine. U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Victoria Nuland, Assistant Secretary, Bureau of European & Eurasian Affairs, Remarks at GLOBSEC 2014 (May 14,2014), at http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rm/2014/may/226220.htm.

page 809 note 120 White House Press Release, Background Press Briefing by Senior Administration Officials on the Vice President and Dr. Jill Biden’s Trip to Romania and Cyprus (May 19, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/05/19/background-press-briefing-senior-administration-officials-vice-president.

page 809 note 121 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, U.S. Department of State to Host Google + Hangout May 23 on Ukrainian Elections (May 22, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/05/226456.htm.

page 809 note 122 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, John Kerry, Secretary of State, 2014 Presidential Elections in Ukraine (May 26, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/05/226543.htm.

page 809 note 123 Id.

page 809 note 124 May 29 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, supra note 95.

page 810 note 125 White House Press Release, Statement by the Press Secretary on the President’s Travel to Europe in June 2014 (Apr. 30, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/04/30/statement-press-secretary-president-s-travel-europe-june-2014.

page 810 note 126 White House Press Release, the Brussels G-7 Summit Declaration, Brussels, Belgium (June 5, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/05/brussels-g-7-summit-declaration.

page 810 note 127 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Statement, John Kerry, Secretary of State, Congratulating Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine on the Signing of Agreements with the European Union (June 27, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/06/228518.htm; see also supra text accompanying notes 5–6.

page 810 note 128 White House Press Release, Readout of the Vice President’s Call with Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko (July 3, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/03/readout-vice-presidents-call-ukrainian-president-petro-poroshenko.

page 810 note 129 Id.

page 810 note 130 Id. Obama spoke with French President François Hollandeon July 7, agreeing that their preference remained “a bilateral ceasefire, fully supported by Russia, and with a peaceful resolution to the conflict, including the release of all hostages.” White House Press Release, Readout of the President’s Call with President Hollande of France (July 7, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/07/readout-president-s-call-president-hollande-france.

page 810 note 131 U.S. Dep’t of State, Department of State: 2014 Investment Climate Statement 1 (June 2014), available at http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/228199.pdf.

page 811 note 132 Birnbaum, Michael, Ukraine President Vows Revenge After 19 Soldiers Killed in Rebel Rocket Attack, Wash. Post, July 11, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/ukraine-president-vows-revenge-after-19-soldiers-killed-in-rebel-rocket-attack/2014/07/11/28dde6c2-093e-11e4-a0dd-f2b22a257353_story.html Google Scholar.

page 811 note 133 Demirjian, Karoun & Birnbaum, Michael, Russia Warns Ukraine of ‘Irreversible Consequences’ After Cross border Shelling, Wash. Post, July 13, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russia-warns-ukraine-of-irreversible-consequences-after-cross-border-shelling/2014/07/13/d2be1bb0-0a85-11e4-8341-b8072b 1e7348_story.html Google Scholar.

page 811 note 134 White House Press Release, Conference Call by Senior Administration Officials on Ukraine (July 16, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/16/conference-call-senior-administration-officials-ukraine.

page 811 note 135 Id. (citing Executive Orders 13660, 13661, and 13662).

page 811 note 136 White House Press Release, Remarks by the President on Foreign Policy (July 16, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/16/remarks-president-foreign-policy.

page 811 note 137 Birnbaum, Michael, Russia Warns of Grave Consequences from New U.S. Sanctions, Wash. Post, July 17, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-warns-of-grave-consequences-from-new-us-sanctions/2014/07/17/86228f6b-0a88-4fda-ab42-ef775be82999_story.html Google Scholar.

page 811 note 138 Demirjian, Karoun, Russia Says It Will Bar Entry to Moran, 12 Others, to Retaliate for U.S. Punitive Actions, Wash. Post, July 19, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-says-it-will-bar-entry-to-moran-12-others-to-retaliate-for-us-punitive-actions/2014/07/19/b461845e-0f44-11e4-b8e5-d0de80767fc2_story.html Google Scholar.

page 811 note 139 Birnbaum, Michael & Faiola, Anthony M., Missile Downs Malaysia Airlines Plane over Ukraine, Killing 298; Kiev Blames Rebels, Wash. Post, July 18, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/malaysia-airlines-plane-disappears-over-ukraine-feared-shot-down-by-missile/2014/07/17/0fffe1e6-0dcb-11e4-8341-b 8072b1e7348_story.html Google Scholar.

page 812 note 140 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Press Statement by the Trilateral Contact Group (July 18, 2014), at http://www.osce.org/home/121390.

page 812 note 141 E.g., White House Press Release, Statement by the President on Ukraine (July 18, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/18/statement-president-ukraine (stating that the plane was shot down by a surface-to-air missile “launched from an area that is controlled by Russian-backed separatists inside of Ukraine”); White House Press Release, Readout of the Vice President’s Call with Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko (July 18, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/18/readout-vice-presidents-callukrainian-president-petro-poroshenko (characterizing Russia as “the party responsible for arming the separatists”); Michael Birnbaum & Karen DeYoung, Russia Supplied Missile Launchers to Separatists, U.S. Official Says, Wash. Post, July 19, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/ukranian-officials-accuse-rebel-militias-of-moving-bodies-tampering-with-evidence/2014/07/19/bef07204-0f1c-11e4-b8e5-d0de80767fc2_story.html (quoting an unnamed U.S. official as confirming that Russia had supplied sophisticated missile launch systems to separatists in eastern Ukraine and attempted to move several Buk missile launchers back across the border after the jetliner attack); Karen DeYoung, Russia Says It Backs Transparent International Probe of Jet Crash in Ukraine, Wash. Post, July 19, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/russia-says-it-backs-transparent-international-probe-of-jet-crash-in-ukraine/2014/07/19/e73d7c12-0f7a-11e4-b8e5-d0de80767fc2_story.html (quoting a senior administration official as remarking that “[i]t’s another case of the Russians saying one thing and doing another”).

page 812 note 142 Embassy of the United States, Kyiv, Ukraine, Press Release, United States Assessment of the Downing of Flight MH 17 and Its Aftermath (July 19, 2014), at http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/statements/asmt-07192014.html. Ukraine, too, assigned responsibility to Russia. “We call it neither an incident, nor a disaster, but a terrorist act,” Ukrainian President Poroshenko said. Petro Poroshenko, President of Ukraine Press Release, the President Calls on All Branches of Power to Unite in the Face of the Threat of External Aggression (July 17, 2014), at http://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/30784.html. The chief of Ukraine’s Security Service stated that the Ukrainian government had intercepted phone calls between Russia’s main intelligence directorate and pro-Russian separatists, allegedly discussing the strike; meanwhile, the Ukrainian government posted a YouTube video purportedly showing a Russian-made “Buk,” or SA-11 “Gadfly,” surface-to-air missile system en route on July 18 from eastern Ukraine to the Russian border. Thomas Gibbons-Neff, New Video Allegedly Shows ‘Buk’ Missile System en Route to Russia, Wash. Post, July 18, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2014/07/18/new-video-allegedly-shows-buk-missile-system-en-route-to-russia; see also Birnbaum & Faiola, supra note 139.

page 812 note 143 Sweetman, Bill, Buk Missile System Lethal, but Undiscriminating, Aviation Week, July 23, 2014, at http://aviationweek.com/defense/buk-missile-system-lethal-undiscriminating Google Scholar.

page 812 note 144 Birnbaum & Faiola, supra note 139.

page 812 note 145 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release, Comment by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Regarding the Investigation into the Malaysian Plane Crash in the Ukrainian Air Space (July 19, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/3ed1137f57c602d644257d1d0059f0f0!OpenDocument.

page 813 note 146 SC Res. 2166, paras. 7, 9, 11, 12 (July 21, 2014); see also Security Council Coalesces Around Resolution 2166 (2014) on Malaysian Jet Crash Demanding Accountability, Full Access to Site, Halt to Military Activities, Un News Centre, July 21, 2014, at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2014/sc11483.doc.htm.

page 814 note 147 Embassy of the United States, Kyiv, Ukraine, Press Release, Explanation of Vote by Ambassador Samantha Power, U.S. Permanent Representative to the United Nations, After a Vote on Security Council Resolution 2166 on the Downing of Malaysian Airlines Flight 17 in Ukraine (July 21, 2014), at http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/statements/power-ukraine-07212014.html.

page 814 note 148 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release, Evidence of Russian Shelling into Ukraine (July 23, 2014), at http://photos.state.gov/libraries/ukraine/895/pdf/evidence-russian-firing.pdf.

page 814 note 149 Embassy of the United States, Kyiv, Ukraine, Press Release, U.S.: Russia’s ‘Actions, Incredibly, Are Heading Towards Escalation of the Crisis’ (July 23, 2014), at http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/statements/amb-cnn-07232014.html.

page 814 note 150 DeYoung, Karen & Morello, Carol, Significant New European Sanctions on Russia Expected, U.S. Says, Wash. Post, July 28, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/ukraine-forces-capture-rebel-territory-close-to-malaysia-airlines-crash-site/2014/07/28/43b90a26-164a-11e4-9e3b-7f2f110c6265_story.html Google Scholar.

page 814 note 151 New Day Transcripts, CNN.COM, July 31, 2014, at http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1407/31/nday.01.html.

page 814 note 152 Karen DeYoung, U.S. Releases Images It Says Show Russia Has Fired Artillery over Border into Ukraine, Wash. Post, July 27, 2014, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-releases-images-it-says-show-russia-has-fired-artillery-over-border-into-ukraine/2014/07/27/f9190158-159d-11e4-9e3b-7f2f110c6265_story.html.

page 814 note 153 See also United States Claims That Russia Has Violated the INF Treaty, this issue.

page 814 note 154 Id.

page 815 note 155 See Neil MacFarquhar, As Sanctions Pile Up, Russians’ Alarm Grows over Putin’s Tactics, N.Y. Times, July 30, 2014, at A1.

page 815 note 156 White House Press Release, Statement by the President on Ukraine (July 29, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/29/statement-president-ukraine.

page 815 note 157 Id.

page 815 note 158 President of Russia Press Release, Meeting on Import Replacement(July 28, 2014), at http://eng.kremlin.ru/news/22747.

page 815 note 159 White House Press Release, G-7 Leaders Statement on Ukraine (July 30, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/30/g-7-leaders-statement-ukraine.

page 815 note 160 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Press Release, Comment by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Regarding the Continuing Anti-Russian Moves of the US Administration (July 26, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/f26edab8730c7da444257d240059a724! OpenDocument (“There is only one conclusion: the Administration of Barack Obama is responsible for the internal conflict in Ukraine and its severe consequences.”).

page 815 note 1 Smale, Alison, German Man Is Held as Spy; U.S. Implicated, N.Y. Times, July 5, 2014, at A1 Google Scholar.

page 815 note 2 Smale, Alison, New Case of Spying Is Alleged by Germany, N.Y. Times, July 10, 2014, at A6 Google Scholar.

page 815 note 3 Smale, Alison, Mazzetti, Mark & Sanger, David E., Germany to Oust Top C.I.A. Officer as a Rift Deepens, N.Y. Times, July 11, 2014, at A1 Google Scholar.

page 816 note 4 German Federal Chancellor Press Release, We Must Discuss Our Divergent Views (July 16, 2014), at http://www.bundeskanzlerin.de/Content/EN/Artikel/2014/07_en/2014-07-10-geheimdienste_en.html.

page 816 note 5 Eddy, Melissa, Germany: American Spy Chief Leaves, N.Y. Times, July 18, 2014, at A9 Google Scholar.

page 816 note 6 Smale, Alison, Ties Strained, Germans Press U.S. to Answer Spy Allegation, N.Y. Times, July 7, 2014, at A4 Google Scholar.

page 816 note 7 Id. Two members of Congress had earlier urged the president to include Germany in the Five Eyes pact. Letter from Rep. Charles W. Dent and Rep. Paul Ryan to President Barack Obama (Nov. 6, 2013), available at http://www.dent.house.gov/?a=Files.Serve&File_id=EA4825DA-E015-484F-A8FE-0C9EE112B798; see also Press Release, Congressman Charles Dent, Continuing Surveillance Efforts Directed at Ally Merkel Could Damage U.S. German Relations (Nov. 6, 2013), at http://dent.house.gov/index.cfm?p=PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=B7BE6782-B45F-400D-9025-0A9CB314365D.

page 816 note 8 U.K.-U.S. Communications Intelligence Agreement (May 10, 1955), available at http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/ukusa/new_ukusa_agree_10may55.pdf

page 816 note 9 Id., para. 4; Id., App. J.

page 816 note 10 U.S. National Security Agency, UKUSA Agreement Release, 1940–1956 (June 24, 2010), at http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/ukusa.shtml (reproducing the full text of the UKUSA Agreement).

page 817 note 11 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Release No. 2012/391, Annual Meeting of the President’s Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons (Mar. 15, 2012), at http://www.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2012/03/185905.htm (statement of Lieutenant General Jim Clapper, the director of national intelligence).

page 817 note 12 James Cox, Canada and the Five Eyes Intelligence Community 2, 6 (2012), available at http://www.cdfai.org/PDF/Canada%20and%20the%20Five%20Eyes%20Intelligence%20Community.pdf.

page 817 note 13 Id. at 5, 7.

page 817 note 14 Smale, Mazzetti & Sanger, supra note 3.

page 817 note 15 Sanger, David E., U.S. and Germany Fail to Reach a Deal on Spying, N.Y. Times, May 2, 2014, at A3 Google Scholar.

page 818 note 16 Id.

page 818 note 17 White House Press Release, Press Conference by President Obama and President Hollande of France (Feb. 11, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/photos-and-video/video/2014/02/11/president-obama-holds-press-conference-president-hollande-france#transcript.

page 819 note 18 White House Press Release, Remarks by President Obama and German Chancellor Merkel in Joint Press Conference (May 2, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/05/02/remarks-president-obama-and-german-chancellor-merkel-joint-press-confere.

page 819 note 19 White House Press Release, Readout of the Chief of Staff’s Meetings in Berlin, Germany (July 22, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/22/readout-chief-staff-s-meetings-berlin-germany.

page 819 note 20 White House Press Release, Readout of the President’s Call with Chancellor Merkel of Germany (July 15, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/15/readout-president-s-call-chancellor-merkel-germany.

page 819 note 21 Dilanian, Ken, CIA Stops Spying on Friendly Nations in W. Europe, ABC News, Sept. 20, 2014, at http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/cia-stops-spying-friendly-nations-europe-25641881?singlePage=true Google Scholar.

page 819 note 22 Office of the Director of National Intelligence, Remarks as Delivered by the Honorable James R. Clapper, Director of National Intelligence, at the AFCEA/INSA National Security and Intelligence Summit (Sept. 18, 2014), at http://www.dni.gov/index.php/newsroom/speeches-and-interviews/202-speeches-interviews-2014/1115-remarks-as-delivered-by-the-honorable-james-r-clapper-director-of-national-intelligence-afcea-insa-national-security-and-intelligence-summit.

page 819 note 1 Statement of Interest of the United States filed March 7, 2014, Georges v. United Nations, No. 1: 13-cv-07146 (S.D.N.Y. filed Oct. 10, 2013), available at http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Georges-v.-UN-13-Civ.-7146-SDNY-Statement-of-Interest.pdf; Letter in Further Support of Statement of Interest filed July 7, 2014, Georges v. United Nations, No. 1:13-cv-07146 (S.D.N.Y. filed Oct. 10, 2013), available at http://www.innercitypress.com/us1unimmunity070714.pdf.

page 820 note 2 United Nations in Haiti, Haiti Cholera Response (June 2014), available at http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/Cholera_UN_FactsheetJune_2014.pdf

page 820 note 3 SC Res. 1542 (Apr. 30, 2004); see also Michael J. Matheson, Council Unbound: the Growth of Un Decision Making on Conflict and Postconflict Issues After the Coldwar 156–57 (2006).

page 820 note 4 SC Res. 1542, supra note 3, para. 7.

page 820 note 5 SC Res. 1908, para. 1 (Jan. 19, 2010); SC Res. 1927 (June 4, 2010).

page 820 note 6 Final Report of the Independent Panel of Experts on the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti 3 (May 2011), available at http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/haiti/UN-cholera-report-final.pdf [hereinafter UN Expert Report].

page 820 note 7 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Press Release (Nov. 1, 2010), at http://www.cdc.gov/media/pressrel/2010/r101101.html.

page 820 note 8 See, e.g., Booth, William, U.N. Troops Assaulted, Blamedfor Outbreak, Wash. Post, Nov. 16, 2010, at A9 Google Scholar; see also UN Expert Report, supra note 6, at 8 (noting one possible hypothesis that “the source of the outbreak was an infected human who carried a pathogenic strain of Vibrio cholerae into Haiti from a cholera endemic region outside the country,” that “the soldiers at the Mirebalais MINUSTAH camp were the direct source for the cholera outbreak,” and that this hypothesis was “a commonly held belief in Haiti”).

page 820 note 9 UN News Centre Press Release, Haiti: Ban Appoints Four Top Medical Experts to Probe Source of Cholera Epidemic (Jan. 6, 2011), at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37216&Cr=haiti&Cr1#U-eRsUi5ZrM.

page 820 note 10 Secretary-General Press Statement, Statement Attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on the Independent Expert Panel’s Report Regarding the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti (May 4, 2011), at http://www.un.org/sg/statements/?nid=5245.

page 820 note 11 UN Expert Report, supra note 6, at 3.

page 820 note 12 Id. at 29 (emphasis omitted).

page 821 note 13 Id. at 3

page 821 note 14 UN Haiti Cholera Panel Avoids Blaming Peacekeepers, Reuters, May 5, 2011, at http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/05/us-haiti-cholera-panel-idUSTRE74457Q20110505; see also id. (quoting a spokesperson for the UN peacekeeping departments that “[a]nyone carrying the relevant strain of the disease in the area could have introduced the bacteria into the river”).

page 821 note 15 Secretary-General Press Statement, supra note 10; UN News Centre, UN to Set Up Taskforce in Wake of Report into Source or Haitian Cholera Outbreak (May 4, 2011), at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=38277&#.VA9dY0geVrM.

page 821 note 16 Petition for Relief, Over 5,000 Victims of Cholera v. United Nations (MINUSTAH Claims Unit, Haiti, Nov. 2011), available at http://ijdh.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/englishpetitionREDACTED.pdf [hereinafter Petition for Relief].

page 821 note 17 Id. at 18, 21, 24.

page 821 note 18 Id. at 16, 25.

page 821 note 19 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, Art. VIII, sec. 29(a), Feb. 13, 1946, 21 UST 1418, 1 UNTS 16.

page 821 note 20 Agreement Between the United Nations and the Government of Haiti Concerning the Status of the United Nations Operations in Haiti, paras. 54, 55, July 9, 2004, 2271 UNTS 235 (2005), available at https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/UNTS/Volume%202271/v2271.pdf

page 821 note 21 Id., para. 55.

page 822 note 22 Secretary-General Press Statement, Statement Attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on Haiti (Feb. 21, 2013), at http://www.un.org/sg/statements/index.asp?nid=6615.

page 822 note 23 Letter from Patricia O’Brien, UN Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, to Brian Concannon, Attorney for the Haitian Cholera Victims (Feb. 21, 2013), available at http://opiniojuris.org/wp-content/uploads/LettertoMr.BrianConcannon.pdf; see also Letter from Patricia O’Brien, UN Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs, to Brian Concannon, Attorney for the Haitian Cholera Victims (July 5, 2013), available at http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/20130705164515.pdf

page 822 note 24 Rashkow, Bruce, Remedies for Harm Caused by UN Peacekeepers, AJIL Unbound (Apr. 2, 2014), at http://www.asil.org/blogs/remedies-harm-caused-un-peacekeepers Google Scholar(“Indeed, as the head of the UN legal office that routinely handled claims against the Organization for some ten years, I did not recall any previous instance where such a formulation was utilized in regard to such claims.”); see also id. (noting that the United Nations used that formulation once in 2011 in response to claims for health damages suffered by third parties as a result of lead contamination in certain internally displaced persons camps in Kosovo).

page 822 note 25 See Lynch, Colum, Cholera Outbreak in Haiti in 2010 Tied to U.N. Peacekeepers, Report Says, Wash. Post, July 25, 2013, at http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/cholera-outbreak-in-haiti-tied-to-un-peacekeepers-report-says/2013/07/25/7732341e-f552-11e2-a2f1-a7acf9bd5d3a_story.html Google Scholar; Lantagne, Daniele, Nair, G. Balakrish, Lanata, Claudio F. & Cravioto, Alejandro, The Cholera Outbreak in Haiti: Where and How Did it Begin?, 379 Current Topics in Microbiology & Immunology 145 (2014)Google ScholarPubMed.

page 822 note 26 Lantagne et al., supra note 25, at 162.

page 822 note 27 Complaint, Georges v. United Nations, No. 1:13-cv-7146 (S.D.N.Y. filed Oct. 10, 2013), available at http://www.ijdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Cholera-Complaint.pdf

page 822 note 28 Id., paras. 243–62.

page 823 note 29 Id., paras. 11–12.

page 823 note 30 Id., paras. 105–41, 163–77, 184–88.

page 823 note 31 Complaint, Jean-Robert v. United Nations, No. 1:14-cv-1545 (S.D.N.Y. filed Mar. 6, 2014); Complaint, LaVenture v. United Nations, No. 1:14-cv-1611 (E.D.N.Y. filed Mar. 11, 2014), available at http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/marielaventure.pdf.

page 823 note 32 Statement of Interest, supra note 1.

page 823 note 33 Id. at 3–6 (citations omitted).

page 824 note 34 Id. at 6–8 (citing legal immunity for UN officials “as are necessary for the independent exercise of their functions” under Article 105, section 2, of the UN Charter; for the secretary-general and all assistant secretaries-general, in line with the immunities accorded to diplomatic envoys, under Article V, section 19, of the UN Charter; and for UN officials acting in their official capacity under Article V, section 18(a), of the General Convention).

page 824 note 35 Id. at 8–9 (citations and footnote omitted).

page 825 note 36 Letter in Further Support of Statement of Interest, supra note 1, at 3–4.

page 826 note 37 Id. at 7–9 (citations and footnote omitted).

page 826 note 38 Jacqueline Charles, United Nations Top Official Goes to Haiti to Promote Cholera Elimination, Elections, Miami Herald, July 13, 2014, at http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/07/13/4234323/united-nations-top-official-goes.html.

page 826 note 1 U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, BNP Paribas Agrees to Plead Guilty and to Pay $8.9 Billion for Illegally Processing Financial Transactions for Countries Subject to U.S. Economic Sanctions (June 30, 2014), at http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2014/June/14-ag-686.html.

page 826 note 2 U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, Attorney General Holder Delivers Remarks at Press Conference Announcing Significant Law Enforcement Action (June 30, 2014), at http://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/ag/speeches/2014/ag-speech-1406301.html [hereinafter Holder Press Release].

page 826 note 3 Statement of Facts, para. 14, United States v. BNP Paribas S.A., No. 1:14-Cr.-00460 (S.D.N.Y. July 9, 2014), available at http://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/paribas/statement-of-facts.pdf; U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, supra note 1.

page 826 note 4 Plea Agreement, United States v. BNP Paribas S.A., No. 1:14-Cr.-00460 (S.D.N.Y. July 9, 2014), available at http://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/paribas/plea-agreement.pdf.

page 826 note 5 U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, Remarks by Assistant Attorney General Leslie R. Caldwell at BNP Paribas Press Conference (June 30, 2014), at http://www.justice.gov/criminal/pr/speeches/2014/crm-speech-140630.html [hereinafter Caldwell Press Release].

page 827 note 6 Andrew R. Johnson, BNP Paribas Pleads Guilty to Criminal Charge in Federal Court: French Bank Agreed in June to Plead Guilty in Sanctions Case, WALL ST. J., July 9, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/bnp-paribas-pleads-guilty-to-criminal-charge-in-federal-court-1404944484; see also U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, supra note 1.

page 827 note 7 U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, supra note 1.

page 827 note 8 Cf., e.g., Lowenfeld, Andreas F., Congress and Cuba: the Helms-Burton Act, 90 AJIL 419, 428–33 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar (arguing that the Helms-Burton Act is incompatible with international law limits on extraterritorial jurisdiction).

page 827 note 9 See, e.g., Rathbone, Meredith, Jeydel, Peter & Lentz, Amy, Sanctions, Sanctions Everywhere: Forging a Path Through Complex Transnational Sanctions Laws, 44 GEO. J. Int’l L. 1055, 1110–11 (2013)Google Scholar (describing “moving money through the U.S. financial system” as being “engaged in activity within the territory of the United States”); Gruson, Michael, The U.S. Jurisdiction over Transfers of U.S. Dollars Between Foreigners and over Ownership of U.S. Dollar Accounts in Foreign Banks, 2004 Colum. Bus. L. Rev. 721, 724–25Google Scholar.

page 827 note 10 Statement of Facts, supra note 3, para. 17. Specifically, the government accused BNP Paribas of conspiring to violate Executive Orders 13,067 and 13,412, as well as their associated regulations. Id., para. 5.

page 827 note 11 Id., paras. 17, 24.

page 827 note 12 Id., paras. 18, 23.

page 827 note 13 See Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) Settlement Agreement, para. 9, United States v. BNP Paribas, S.A., No. 1:14-Cr-00460 (S.D.N.Y. July 9,2014), available at http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/CivPen/Documents/20140630_bnp_settlement.pdf. According to the OFAC settlement, BNP Paribas “conveyed the benefit of the services of the unwitting U.S. bank recipients to Sudan and directly or indirectly exported financial services from the United States to Sudan.” Id.

page 827 note 14 Statement of Facts, supra note 3, paras. 18, 22.

page 827 note 15 Information, para. 2, United States v. BNP Paribas, S.A., No. 1:14-Cr.-00460 (S.D.N.Y. July 9, 2014), available at http://www.justice.gov/opa/documents/paribas/information.pdf (listing violated sanctions).

page 828 note 16 Statement of Facts, supra note 3, para. 43.

page 828 note 17 Id., paras. 46, 47.

page 828 note 18 Id., para. 48.

page 828 note 19 Information, supra note 15, para. 3 (detailing the government’s specific charges).

page 828 note 20 Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, 40 Stat. 411 (1917) (codified at 50 U.S.C. app. §§1–44); see also Cuban Assets Control Regulations, 31 C.F.R. §515 (2013); Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, Pub. L. No. 102-484, 106 Stat. 2575 (1992) (codified at 22 U.S.C. §§6001–10).

page 828 note 21 31 C.F.R. §515.201(a)(1), (c) (prohibiting “[a]ll transfers of credit and all payments between, by, through, or to any banking institution or banking institutions wheresoever located, with respect to any property subject to the jurisdiction of the United States or by any person (including a banking institution) subject to the jurisdiction of the United States” and “any transaction for the purpose or has the effect of evading or avoiding” such sanctions).

page 828 note 22 Statement of Facts, supra note 3, para. 49; OFAC Settlement Agreement, supra note 13, paras. 3, 21; see also 31 C.F.R. §515.201.

page 828 note 23 Statement of Facts, supra note 3, para. 52.

page 828 note 24 Id., paras. 53–54.

page 828 note 25 SC Res. 1591, para. 3(e) (Mar. 29, 2005) (deciding that states “shall freeze all funds, financial assets and economic resources” of designated persons involved in the Sudan conflict); SC Res. 1737, para. 12 (Dec. 23, 2006) (deciding that states “shall freeze the funds, other financial assets and economic resources” of designated persons related to Iran’s nuclear program); SC Res. 1747, para.4 (Mar. 24, 2007) (expanding sanctions to additional persons related to Iran’s nuclear program); SC Res. 1803, para. 7 (Mar. 3, 2008) (further expanding sanctions to additional persons related to Iran’s nuclear program); SC Res. 1929, para. 11 (June 9, 2010) (further expanding sanctions to additional persons related to Iran’s nuclear program).

page 829 note 26 Horobin, William & Gauthier-Villars, David, Top French Banker Defends BNP Paribas: Noyer Says Lender Didn’t Break French, European Rules on Transactions at Heart of U.S. Probes, Wall St. J., May 23, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303749904579579403841990922 Google Scholar; Pour la Banque de France, BNP Paribas a respecté les règles françaises et européeennes, Le Monde, May 23, 2014, at http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2014/05/23/pour-la-banque-de-france-bnp-paribas-a-respecte-les-regles-francaises-et-europeennes_4424498_3234.html [hereinafter Le Monde].

page 829 note 27 Caldwell Press Release, supra note 5 (noting that the “nature and scope of [BNP Paribas’s] criminal conduct far exceeded that in any previous criminal sanctions case”).

page 829 note 28 Holder Press Release, supra note 2.

page 829 note 29 U.S. Dep’t of Justice Press Release, Remarks by Deputy Attorney General Cole at Press Conference Announcing Significant Law Enforcement Action (June 30, 2014), at http://www.justice.gov/iso/opa/dag/speeches/2014/dag-speech-140630.html.

page 829 note 30 Id.

page 829 note 31 Jessica Silver-Greenberg & Ben Protess, BNP Paribas Pinned Its Hopes on a Memo, but in Vain, N.Y. Times, June 4, 2014, at B1; Ben Protess & Jessica Silver-Greenberg, Two Giant Banks, Seen as Immune, Become Targets, N.Y. Times, Apr. 30, 2014, at A 1.

page 829 note 32 N.Y. Dep’t of Fin. Servs. Press Release, Cuomo Administration Announces BNP Paribas to Pay $8.9 Billion, Including $2.24 Billion to NYDFS, Terminate Senior Executives, Restrict U.S. Dollar Clearing Operations for Violations of Law (June 30, 2014), at http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press2014/pr1406301.htm. This state penalty is credited against the $8.9 billion settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice. In other words, payment of the $2.24 billion fine is in partial satisfaction of the $8.9 billion total, not in addition to it. Id.

page 829 note 33 Protess, Ben, Banks Urged to Denounce Wrongdoers, N.Y. Times, Sept. 18, 2014, at B8 Google Scholar; Jolly, David, BNP Paribas Executive Leaves as Trade Investigation Grows, N.Y. Times, June 13, 2014, at B5 Google Scholar; Barrett, Devlin, Enrich, David & Matthews, Christopher M., Justice Dept. Seeks More Than $10 Billion Penalty from BNP Paribas, Wall St. J., May 29, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/justice-dept-seeks-more-than-10-billion-penalty-from-bnp-paribas-1401386918 Google Scholar.

page 829 note 34 Arnold, Martin & Carnegy, Hugh, BNP and US Cross the ‘T’s and Dot the ‘I’s, Fin. Times, June 23, 2014, at http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e01505d6-faee-11e3-a9cd-00144feab7de.html Google Scholar; Le Monde, supra note 26.

page 830 note 35 Noémie Bisserbe, Hollande Backs BNP Paribas in Letter to Obama, Wall St. J., June 4, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/hollande-backs-bnp-paribas-in-letter-to-obama-1401885257.

page 830 note 36 Hinnant, Lori, Obama Deflects French Appeal in Massive Bank Fine, Associated Press, June 5, 2014, at http://bigstory.ap.org/article/hollande-wants-discuss-bnp-bank-fine-obama. Google Scholar

page 830 note 37 William Horobin & Noémie Bisserbe, France Pushes Back Against Possible U.S. $10 Billion Fine on BNP Paribas: U.S. Alleges French Bank Breached Sanctions, Wall St. J., June 3, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/frances-fabius-says-possible-10-billion-bnp-fine-unreasonable-1401783540.

page 830 note 38 William Horobin, France Claims Victory in BNP Paribas Case, Wall St. J., July 1, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/france-claims-victory-in-bnp-paribas-case-1404211120.

page 830 note 39 Mark Scott, Sanction Costs, N.Y. Times, Aug. 1, 2014, at B6; Noémie Bisserbe, BNP Paribas Reports Record $5.79 Billion Quarterly Loss, Wall St. J., July 31, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/bnp-paribas-reports-record-5-79-billion-quarterly-loss-1406783037.

page 830 note 40 FINMA Press Release, Inadequate Risk Management of US Sanctions: FINMA Closes Proceedings Against BNP Paribas (Suisse) (July 1, 2014), at https://www.finma.ch/e/aktuell/pages/mm-abschluss-verfahren-bnp-paribas-suisse-20140701.aspx.

page 830 note 41 Scott, Mark, Standard Chartered Chairman Retracts Comments on Sanctions Settlement with U.S., N.Y. Times, Mar. 21, 2013, at http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/03/21/standard-chartered-chairman-retracts-comments-on-sanctions-settlement Google Scholar; see also Silver-Greenberg, Jessica, Standard Chartered Agrees to Settle Iran Money Transfer Claims, N.Y. Times, Dec. 10, 2012, at http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/12/10/standard-chartered-agrees-to-settle-iran-money-transfer-claims Google Scholar.

page 830 note 42 Ben Protess & Jessica Silver-Greenberg, Bank Said to Avoid Charges over Laundering, N.Y. Times, Dec. 11, 2012, at A1.

page 830 note 43 Jessica Silver-Greenberg & Ben Protess, Scrutiny for Banks Is Shifting to Germany, N.Y. Times, July 8, 2014, at B1.

page 831 note 44 Parkin, Brian & Jennen, Birgit, Merkel Ally Criticizes U.S. Sanctions-Busting Bank Fines, Bloomberg, July 11, 2014, at http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-07-11/merkel-ally-criticizes-u-s-sanctions-busting-bank-fines.html Google Scholar; Marlow, Ben, Banks Under the Thumb of America, the Global Cop, Telegraph, July 6, 2014, at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/banksandfinance/10948081/Banks-under-the-thumb-of-America-the-global-cop.html Google Scholar; BNP Paribas in the Dock: No Way to Treat a Criminal, Economist, July 5, 2014, at 12, available at http://www.economist.com/node/21606279; Treanor, Jill, US Regulators Have Britain’s ‘Wild West’ Bank Culture in Their Sights, Guardian, Aug. 7, 2012, at http://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/aug/07/standard-chartered-joins-british-banks-in-us-sights Google Scholar.

page 831 note 45 See, e.g., Stothard, Michael, France Hits Out at Dollar Dominance in International Transactions, Fin. Times, July 6, 2014, at http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/883e7912-0513-11e4-b098-00144feab7de.html Google Scholar; Irwin, Neil, In BNP Case, an Example of How Mighty the Dollar Is, N.Y. Times, July 2, 2014, at B4 Google Scholar.

46 Deen, Mark, France’s Noyer Says BNP May Prompt Shift Away from Dollar, Bloomberg, June 11, 2014, at http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-11/ecb-s-noyer-says-bnp-may-prompt-shift-away-from-dollar.html Google Scholar.

page 831 note 1 Ralls Corp. v. Comm. on Foreign Inv. In the United States, 758 F.3d 296, 302 (D.C. Cir. 2014).

page 831 note 2 Id.

page 831 note 3 Id. at 301.

page 831 note 4 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(a)(3) (2012) (defining “covered transaction”).

page 831 note 5 U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) (Dec. 20, 2012), at http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/international/Pages/Committee-on-Foreign-Investment-in-US.aspx. In addition, CFIUS was created “pursuant to section 721 of the Defense Production Act (DPA) of 1950 [the Exon-Florio Amendment], as amended by the Foreign Investment and National Security Act of 2007 (FINSA) (section 721) and as implemented by Executive Order 11858, as amended, and regulations at 31 C.F.R. Part 800.” Id.

page 832 note 6 Ralls Corp., 758 F.3d at 302 (citations and footnote omitted).

page 832 note 7 Id. at 303 (citing 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(b)(2)(A), (B)).

page 832 note 8 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(a)(5). The statutory factors that CFIUS must consider in making this determination include the potential effects of the transaction on domestic production needed for national defense projects, the capacity of domestic industries to meet national defense requirements, and the impact on U.S. critical infrastructure. For a complete list of factors, see 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(f)(1)–(11).

page 832 note 9 U.S. Dep’t of the Treasury, supra note 5 (process overview).

page 832 note 10 Ralls Corp., 758 F.3d at 303 (quoting 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(d)(1)).

page 832 note 11 Id. at 304.

page 832 note 12 Id. at 305.

page 832 note 13 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(b)(1) (requiring an initial thirty-day investigation “to determine the effects of the transaction on the national security of the United States” and to decide whether “the covered transaction is [in fact] a foreign government-controlled transaction”).

page 832 note 14 Statement from the Treasury Department on the President’s Decision Regarding Ralls Corporation (Sept. 28, 2012), at http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1724.aspx; see also Ralls Corp., 758 F.3d at 305 (“Neither the July Order nor the CFIUS Order disclosed the nature of the national security threat the transaction posed or the evidence on which CFIUS relied in issuing the orders.”); id. at 325 (“[A]s counsel for the [government] conceded at oral argument, other foreign-owned windfarms using foreign-made wind turbines operate without governmental interference near the same restricted airspace as the Butter Creek projects. We can thus infer therefrom that mere proximity of [the wind farms purchased by Ralls] to the restricted air space is not the only factor that precipitated the CFIUS Order.”).

page 832 note 15 Ralls Corp., 758 F.3d at 305.

page 833 note 16 Id. (citing 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(b)(2)). If the first phase of a CFIUS investigation demonstrates (inter alia) that a covered transaction either threatens national security or is a foreign government-controlled transaction, the statue requires CFIUS to “immediately conduct an investigation of the effects of a covered transaction on the national security of the United States, and take any necessary actions in connection with the transaction to protect the national security of the United States.” Id. (quoting 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(b)(2)).

page 833 note 17 Id.

page 833 note 18 Id. (quoting joint appendix).

page 833 note 19 Id.

page 833 note 20 Id. at 306.

page 833 note 21 Id.

page 833 note 22 Id.

page 833 note 23 Id. at 307.

page 833 note 24 Id. (quoting Ralls Corp. v. Comm. on Foreign Inv. In the United States, 987 F.Supp.2d 18, 27 (D.D.C. 2013)).

page 833 note 25 Id.

page 833 note 26 Id. at 307–08 (quoting 50 U.S.C. app. §2170(e)).

page 834 note 27 Id. at 308.

page 834 note 28 Id. (quoting Ungar v. Smith, 667 F.2d 188, 193 (D.C. Cir. 1981)).

page 834 note 29 Id. at 311.

page 834 note 30 Id. at 312 (quoting El-Shifa Pharm. Indus. Co. v. United States, 607 F.3d 836, 840 (D.C. Cir. 2010) (en banc)).

page 834 note 31 Id. at 314.

page 834 note 32 Id. at 315.

page 834 note 33 Id. at 316 (quoting Ralls Corp. v. Comm. on Foreign Inv. In the United States, 987 F.Supp.2d 18,27 (D.D.C. 2013)).

page 834 note 34 Id. at 317.

page 834 note 35 Id. at 318 (citing Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319, 335 (1976)).

page 834 note 36 Id. at 319 –20.

page 834 note 37 Id. at 321.

page 835 note 38 Id.

page 835 note 39 Id. (quoting Clarke v. United States, 915 F.2d 699, 704 (D.C. Cir. 1990) (en banc)).

page 835 note 40 Id. at 323.

page 835 note 41 Id. at 325 (quoting Doe v. Sullivan, 938 F.2d 1370, 1378–79 (D.C. Cir. 1991)).

page 835 note 42 Id.

page 835 note 43 Id.

page 835 note 1 See White House Press Statement, Fact Sheet: Changes to U.S. Anti-Personnel Landmine Policy (Sept. 23, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/23/fact-sheet-changes-us-anti-personnel-landmine-policy.

page 835 note 2 Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction, Sept. 18, 1997, 2056 UNTS 35597 (2002), 36 ILM 1507 (1997) [hereinafter Ottawa Treaty]. For more background on United States practice with respect to the Ottawa Treaty, see Crook, John, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 104 AJIL 299 (2010) & 104 AJIL 524 (2010)Google Scholar.

page 835 note 3 Gladstone, Rick, U.S. Chided for Delays over Treaty on Weapons, N.Y. Times, June 26, 2014, at A6 Google Scholar.

page 835 note 4 Ottawa Treaty, supra note 2.

page 835 note 5 Gladstone, Rick, Treaty Is Making Land Mines Weapon of Past, Group Says, N.Y. Times, June 23, 2014, at A5 Google Scholar.

page 835 note 6 Id.

page 836 note 7 Id.

page 836 note 8 U.S. Dep’t of State Fact Sheet, United States Announces Next Steps on Anti-Personnel Landmines (Jan. 17, 1997), at http://1997-2001.state.gov/www/global/arms/pm/hdp/fs_970117_landmine.html.

page 836 note 9 Myers, Steven Lee, Clinton Agrees to Land-Mine Ban, but Not Yet, N.Y. Times, May 22, 1998, at http://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/22/world/clinton-agrees-to-land-mine-ban-but-not-yet.html Google Scholar; see also U.S. Dep’t of State Press Statement, U.S. Landmine Policy (Sept. 23, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/t/pm/wra/c11735.htm.

page 836 note 10 U.S. Dep’t of State Fact Sheet, Frequently Asked Questions on the New United States Landmine Policy (Feb. 27, 2004), at http://fas.org/asmp/campaigns/landmines/FactSheet_FAQ_NewUSLandminePolicy_2-27-04.htm.

page 836 note 11 Defense Department Fiscal Year 2015 Budget Request, Hearing Before the H. Armed Servs. Comm., 113th Cong. (Mar. 6, 2014), available at http://www.c-span.org/video/?318133-1/hearing-fy2015-defense-budget (broadcasted testimony of Gen. Martin Dempsey, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1:07:18)).

page 836 note 12 Statement of Ambassador Douglas Griffiths, United States Embassy Maputo, Mozambique, to the Third Review Conference to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction (June 27,2014), availableat http://www.maputoreviewconference.org/fileadmin/APMBC-RC3/friday/13_HIGH_LEVEL_SEGMENT_-_United_States.pdf

page 836 note 13 U.S. Dep’t of Defense News Transcript, Department of Defense Press Briefing by Rear Adm. Kirby in the Pentagon Briefing Room (June 27, 2014), at http://www.defense.gov/Transcripts/Transcript.aspx?TranscriptID=5455.

page 837 note 14 U.S. Dep’t of State Daily Press Briefing No. 114 (June 27, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2014/06/228539.htm#MISCELLANEOUS.

page 837 note 15 Sen. Patrick Leahy Press Release, Reaction of Senator Patrick Leahy to the White House Announcement of Changes to U.S. Landmine Policy (June 27, 2014), at http://www.leahy.senate.gov/press/reaction-of-senator-patrick-leahy-to-the-white-house-announcement-of-changes-to-us-landmine-policy.

page 837 note 16 H. Armed Servs. Comm. Press Release, McKeon Statement on President Obama’s Land Mine Announcement (June 27, 2014), at http://armedservices.house.gov/index.cfm/press-releases?ContentRecord_id=6D8559E8-F0 4E-437E-9D0E-90BE372E529E (“General Dempsey has long declared the responsible land mines we use are an ‘important tool in the arsenal of the Armed Forces of the United States.’”).

page 837 note 17 U.S. Dep’t of State Press Statement, U.S. Landmine Policy (Sept. 23, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/231995.htm.

page 837 note 18 Ottawa Treaty, supra note 2, Art. 19.

page 837 note 1 U.S. Dep’t of State, Adherence to and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments 1 (July 2014), available at http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/230108.pdf [hereinafter INF REPORT] (“This Report assesses U.S. adherence to obligations undertaken in arms control, nonproliferation, and disarmament agreements and related commitments, including Confidence-and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs) in 2013, as well as the adherence in 2013 of other nations to obligations undertaken in arms control, nonproliferation, and disarmament agreements and related commitments, including CSBMs and the Missile Technology Control Regime, to which the United States is a participating state.”). Publication of the report is required by statute. See 22 U.S.C. §2593a (2012).

page 837 note 2 INF Report, supra note 1, at 14–17.

page 837 note 3 Id. at 8–10; White House Daily Press Statement, Press Briefing by Press Secretary Josh Earnest (July 29, 2014), at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/07/29/press-briefing-press-secretary-josh-earnest-072914. Several months earlier, news reports had indicated that Russia had been testing a new ground-launched cruise missile as early as 2008. Gordon, Michael R., U.S. Says Russia Tested Missile, Despite Treaty, N.Y. Times, Jan. 30, 2014, at A1 Google Scholar. In January 2014, the United States informed NATO allies about the missile tests but did not at that time formally declare that Russia had violated the INF Treaty. Id. When asked about the apparent gap between the identification of the violation and the submission of the formal report, a U.S. Department of State spokesperson said that “decisions need to be made in these cases based on whether these issues constitute noncompliance after a careful fact-based process, which includes diplomatic work, and through an interagency consideration process. That’s been ongoing.” U.S. Dep’t of State Daily Press Briefing No. 132 (July 29, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2014/07/229907.htm.

page 838 note 4 INF Report, supra note 1, at 8; see also id. at 9 (“A GLCM is defined as a ground-launched cruise missile that is a weapon delivery vehicle.”).

page 838 note 5 Id. at 10.

page 838 note 6 Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles, Dec. 8, 1987, 27 ILM 90 (1988), available at http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/inf1.html#treaty [hereinafter INF Treaty]; see also Leich, Marian Nash, Contemporary Practice of the United States, 82 AJIL 341 (1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

page 838 note 7 INF Treaty, supra note 6, Art. 2, para. 5.

page 838 note 8 Id., Art. 2, para. 6.

page 838 note 9 See, e.g., U.S. Dep’t of State, Remarks at the Annual Deterrence Symposium (Aug. 14, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/t/us/2014/230636.htm (remarks by Rose Gottemoeller, Undersecretary for Arms Control and International Security); Gavrilov, Yuri, Its “Tomahawk” Is Closer to the Body Than the United States to Answer Uncomfortable Questions About the Russian Missiles and Medium-Range, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Aug. 14, 2014, at http://www.rg.ru/2014/08/14/antonov.html Google Scholar (interview with Anatoly Antonov); Steven Pifer, Op-Ed., What Should Obama Do About Russia and the INF Treaty? Channel Reagan., L.A. Times, July 30, 2014, at http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-pifer-russia-missile-test-20140731-story.html.

page 838 note 10 INF Treaty, supra note 6.

page 838 note 11 See INF Report, supra note 1, at 1 (“In comparison to classified versions of the Report, this unclassified version may contain less detailed information, fewer compliance assessments, and findings phrased to safeguard sensitive or special reporting while at the same time fulfilling the Report’s statutory requirement.”). But see USA Invites Russia to Discuss Elimination of Ballistic Missiles, Pravda. Ru, Aug. 21, 2014, at http://english.pravda.ru/news/world/21-08-2014/128337-usa_russia_missiles-0/#.U_egevldXk8 (“[T]he USA is likely to be concerned about experimental tests of ground missile complex RS-26 ‘Frontier’ (‘Rubezh’) dubbed as ‘the killer of missile defense,’ as well as tactical cruise missile R-500, used for Iskander K complexes.”); Kristensen, Hans M., Russia Declared in Violation of INF Treaty: New Cruise Missile May Be Deploying, Fed’n Am. Scientists, July 30, 2014 Google Scholar, at http://fas.org/blogs/security/2014/07/russia-inf (noting that unconfirmed news media reports suggest that “Russia’s violation possibly concerns the Iskander-K weapon system, a modification of the Iskander launcher intended to carry two cruise missiles instead of two SS-26 Iskander-M ballistic missiles”); Eremenko, Alexey, Experts I.D. Russian Missile That U.S. Claims Breached Treaty, Moscowtimes, July 30, 2014 Google Scholar, at http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/experts-i-d-russian-missile-that-u-s-claims-breached-treaty/504323.html (stating that “deploymentofRus-sia’s state-of-the-art R-500, a powerful missile that boasts a range of more than 2,000 kilometers, may be seen as a violation of the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty”). Reports have indicated that the R-500 cruise missile was first test-launched at Kapustin Yarin May 2007, and President Vladimir Putin allegedly “confirmed that ‘a new cruise missile test’ had been carried out.” Kristensen, supra. Reports further show great variation in the range estimates for the R-500, from 310 miles (500 km) to 1,243 miles (2,000 km), which may explain the significant length of time that the United States took to find a violation. Id.

page 839 note 12 INF Report, supra note 1, at 9.

page 839 note 13 Id. at 9–10.

page 839 note 14 White House Daily Press Statement, supra note 3.

page 839 note 15 Id.

page 839 note 16 Id. ; Gordon, Michael R., Russians’ Test Called Breach of Missile Pact, N.Y. Times, July 29, 2014, at A1 Google Scholar; Schwartz, Felicia, U.S. Accuses Russia of Violating Arms Treaty, Wall St. J., July 28, 2014, at http://online.wsj.com/articles/u-s-accuses-russia-of-violating-arms-treaty-1406601736 Google Scholar.

page 839 note 17 White House Daily Press Statement, supra note 3.

page 840 note 18 Id.

page 840 note 19 U.S. Dep’t of State Daily Press Briefing No. 132, supra note 3.

page 840 note 20 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Comment by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Regarding the American Accusations That Russia Violates the INF Treaty (July 30, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/a46210afcf9bbf3d44257d27005c8fc5!OpenDocument.

page 840 note 21 Id.

page 840 note 22 Id.

page 840 note 23 Id. On July 31, 2014, General Valery Gerasimov, chief of the Russian General Staff, spoke with General Martin Dempsey, United States chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and “reaffirmed Russia’s adherence to strict implementation of the INF Treaty.” Russian Military Reaffirms Strict Adherence to INF Treaty, RIA Novosti, July 31, 2014, at http://en.ria.ru/military_news/20140731/191540107/Russian-Military-Reaffirms-Strict-Adherence-to-INF-Treaty.html.

page 840 note 24 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Comments by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Report of the U.S. Department of State on Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control, Nonproliferation, and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments (Aug. 1, 2014), at http://mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/0/D2D396AE143B098144257D2A0054C7FD (“Notably, the U.S. side, in its usual manner, provides no specific facts but rather replaced them, for some obscure reason, with a synopsis of the Treaty articles. Comments of the U.S. officials who refer to some ‘classified intelligence data’ also fail to clarify the essence of the U.S. claims. The value and the reliability of such references is largely compromised by the infamous story of the mythical ‘Iraqi weapons of mass destruction,’ which was publicly inflated by the Americans and then burst with a scandal.”).

page 841 note 25 Id.

page 841 note 26 Id.

page 841 note 27 NATO, Statement by the Secretary General on the INF Treaty (July 30, 2014), at http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/news_111823.htm?selectedLocale=en. The NATO secretary general further emphasized that the treaty “remains a key element of Euro-Atlantic security—one that benefits our mutual security and must be preserved.” Id.

page 841 note 28 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Comment by the Information and Press Department of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Regarding the Statement by the NATO Secretary General, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, on the INF Treaty (July 31, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/a852702835afcdc144257d27005d8898!OpenDocument.

page 841 note 29 Id.

page 841 note 30 U.S. Dep’t of State Daily Press Briefing (Sept. 9, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2014/09/231399.htm; U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note, U.S.-Russia INF Treaty Compliance Meeting in Moscow (Sept. 11, 2014), at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/231490.htm; see also Michael R. Gordon, U.S. Delegation Is to Visit Moscow to Review Claims of a Missile Violation, N.Y. Times, Sept. 8, 2014, at http://www.nytimes.com/20l4/09/09/world/europe/us-delegation-is-to-visit-moscow-to-review-claims-of-a-missile-violation.html?_r=0.

page 842 note 31 U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note, U.S.-Russia INF Treaty Compliance Meeting in Moscow (Sept. 11, 2014), at http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/prs/ps/2014/09/231490.htm.

page 842 note 32 Id.

page 842 note 33 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Russian-US Consultations on the INF Treaty (Sept. 11, 2014), at http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070fl28a7b43256999005bcbb3/b26587b455160f3344257d51003656cd!OpenDocument [hereinafter Russian Foreign Ministry Comment].

page 842 note 34 Moscow Not Satisfied with U.S. Responses to Russia’s Concerns over Washington Observing INF Treaty, They Remain in Effect; Russia Recognizes No Violations After Itself—Russian Foreign Ministry, Interfax News, Sept. 11, 2014, at http://www.interfax.com/news.asp?y=20l4&m=9&d=ll&pg=5.

page 842 note 35 U.S. Dep’t of State Media Note, supra note 31.

page 842 note 36 Russian Foreign Ministry Comment, supra note 33; see also Diplomat: Russia, US May Continue INF Treaty Talks, but Format Not Agreed Yet, RIA Novosti, Sept. 16, 2014, at http://en.ria.ru/politics/20l40916/192984730/Diplomat-Russia-US-May-Continue-INF-Treaty-Talks-But-Format-Not.html.