Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T08:05:30.148Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Spatiotemporal Analysis of Old World Diseases in North America, A.D. 1519–1807

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Eric E. Jones
Eric E. Jones*
Affiliation:
P.O. Box 7807, Department of Anthropology, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109 ([email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Over the last 25 years, a significant amount of archaeological and ethnohistoric research has produced data on Native American population trends after European contact. These include the timing and severity of depopulation and specific Old World diseases, allowing for meta-analytical research on a variety of topics. These data have been used in studies to explore the severity of depopulation, but the spatial and temporal patterns of diseases have been studied less. This research employs spatial analysis methods—Mantel tests and kriging—to study the relationship between the location and timing of Old World disease events on continental and regional scales, with the goal of examining how diseases spread over time and space. The results show that the timing of disease-related depopulation closely correlated with location, indicating that disease events clustered with regard to time and space. This strongly suggests that individual disease events impacted local populations and did not spread long distances (> 300 km) until the late seventeenth century. The analysis also reveals variations in the speed with which diseases spread. Interpreting the results with respect to pathogen, host, and environmental factors suggests that population distributions and landscape may have played significant roles in where and how fast diseases spread.

En los últimos 25 años, investigaciones arqueológicas y etnohistóricas han producido suficiente evidencia confiable sobre los patrones de lapoblacion nativa después de la llegada de los europeos al continente americano. Estos datos incluyen información sobre la temporalidad y la severidad de la despoblación experimentada y sobre las enfermedades traídas del viejo al nuevo mundo específicamente. Toda esta información a permitido llevar a cabo investigación meta-analítica para estudiar una gran variedad de temas y con diferentes rangos de escalas geográficas. Estos datos también han sido utilizados en muchos estudios para explorar la severidad de la despoblación de los nativos americanos,pero los patrones espaciales y temporales de las enfermedades no han sido suficientemente investigados. Elpresente estudio utiliza estos datos y emplea métodos de análisis espacial— tests de Mantel y krigeaje—para estudiar la relación entre la ubicación y la temporalidad de la aparición de enfermedades del viejo mundo entre la población nativa americana a escalas continentales y regionales. El objetivo de este estudio es entender mejor como las enfermedades tienden a extenderse a través del tiempo y del espacio. Los resultados del test de Mantel muestran que a escala continental la temporalidad de una despoblación relacionada con una de estas enfermedades está fuertemente correlacionada con la ubicación, lo que indica que la aparición de estas enfermedades en la población nativa americana tuvo un patrón agrupado con respecto al tiempo y espacio en el que ocurrieron. Estos resultados fuertemente sugieren que apariciones separadas de enfermedades del viejo mundo en la población nativa impactaron poblaciones locales y no se propagaron sobre largas distancias (> 300 km) sino hasta finales del siglo diecisiete. A escala regional, los resultados del krigeaje revelan variaciones geográficas con respecto a la velocidad con la cual las enfermedades se diseminaron. El análisis de los datos regionales de patágenos, receptores y factores ambientales parece indicar que las distribuciones poblacionales y el paisaje pudieron haber jugado un papel importante en determinar en dónde y que tan rdpido se propagaron dichas enfermedades.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 79 , Issue 3 , July 2014 , pp. 487 - 506
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Archaeology 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Audy, J. Ralph 1961 The Ecology of Scrub Typhus. In Studies in Disease Ecology, edited by Jacques M. May, pp. 389–432. Hafner, New York.Google Scholar
Austin, Mattie Alice 1905 The Municipal Government of San Fernando de Bexar, 1730–1800. The Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association 8:277–352.Google Scholar
Betts, Colin M. 2006 Pots and Pox: The Identification of Protohistoric Epidemics in the Upper Mississippi Valley. American Antiquity 71:233–259.Google Scholar
Bolton, Herbert E. (editor) 1917 The Mission as a Frontier Institution in the Spanish-American Colonies. American Historical Review 23:42–61.Google Scholar
Boyd, Robert 1990 Demographic History, 1774–1784. In Northwest Coast, edited by Wayne Shuttles, pp. 135–148. Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7, William C. Sturtevant, general editor, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Boyd, Robert 1992 Population Decline from Two Epidemics on the Northwest Coast. In Disease and Demography of the Americas, edited by John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, pp. 249–255. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Boyd, Robert 1994 Smallpox in the Pacific Northwest: The First Epidemics. BC Studies 101:5–40.Google Scholar
Bradford, William 1952 Of Plymouth Plantation, 1620–1647. Samuel Eliot Morison, editor. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.Google Scholar
Brown, James A., and Sasso, Robert F. 2001 A Prelude to History on the Eastern Prairies. In Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodlands, A.D. 1400–1700, edited by David S. Brose, C. Wesley Cowan, and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., pp. 205–228. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Burpee, Lawrence J. (editor) 1927 Journals and Letters of Pierre Gaultier De Varennes de la Verendrye and His Sons, with Correspondence between the Governors of Canada and the French Court, Touching the Search for the Western Sea. The Champlain Society, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar
Campbell, Sarah K. 1990 Postcolumbian Culture History in the Northern Columbia Plateau, A.D. 1500–1900. Garland, New York.Google Scholar
Carlos, Ann M., and Lewis, Frank D. 2012 Smallpox and Native American Mortality: The 1780s Epidemic in the Hudson Bay Region. Explorations in Economic History 49:277–290.Google Scholar
Carrat, Fabrice, and Valleron, Alain-Jacques 1992 Epidemiologic Mapping Using the “Kriging” Method: Application to an Influenza-Like Illness Epidemic in France. American Journal of Epidemiology 135:1293–300.Google Scholar
Carrera Stampa, Manuel (editor) 1955 Memoria de los Servicios que Habia Hecho Nuho de Guzman, Desde quefue Nombrado Gobernador de Panuco en 1525xi. Jose Porrua e Hijos, Mexico.Google Scholar
Christakos, George, and Lai, Jaim-Jou 1997 A Study of the Breast Cancer Dynamics in North Carolina. Social Science & Medicine 45:1503–17.Google Scholar
Christakos, George, Olea, R. A., and Yu, L. 2007 Recent Results on the Spatiotemporal Modeling and Comparative Analysis of Black Death and Bubonic Plague Epidemics. Public Health 121:700–720.Google Scholar
Cook, Sherburne F. 1939 Smallpox in Spanish and Mexican California. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 7:153–191.Google Scholar
Cook, Sherburne F., and Borah, Woodrow 1960 The Indian Population of Central Mexico: 1531–1610. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Cook, Sherburne F., and Borah, Woodrow 1971 Essays in Population History: Mexico and the Caribbean. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Crosby, Alfred W. 1976 Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America. The William and Mary Quarterly 33:289–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeBry, Theodor 1966 Thomas Harlot’s Virginia. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Decker, Jody 1988 Tracing Historical Diffusion Patterns: The Case of the 1780–1782 Smallpox Epidemic among the Indians of Western Canada. Native Studies Review 4:1–24.Google Scholar
Denevan, William M. (editor) 1992 The Native Population of the Americas in 1492. 2nd ed. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
DePratter, Chester B. 1994 The Chiefdom of Cofitachequi. In Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South 1521–1704, edited by Charles Hudson and Carmen C. Tesser, pp. 197–226. University of Georgia Press, Athens.Google Scholar
Deutschmann, Z. 1961 The Ecology of Smallpox. In Studies in Disease Ecology, edited by Jacques M. May, pp. 1–13. Hafner, New York.Google Scholar
Dobyns, Henry F. 1966 Estimating Aboriginal American Population. Current Anthropology 7:395–416.Google Scholar
Dobyns, Henry F. 1983 Their Number Become Thinned: Naive American Population Dynamics in Eastern North America. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.Google Scholar
Eccles, W.J. 1972 France in America. Harper & Row, New York.Google Scholar
Elvas 1851 The Discovery and Conquest of Terra Florida. Translated by R. Hakluyt. Hakluyt Society, London.Google Scholar
Engelbrecht, William A. 2003 Iroquoia: the Development of a Native World. Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York.Google Scholar
Ewen, Charles R. 1997 The Search for Coronado’s Contemporary: The Discovery, Excavation, and Interpretation of Hernando de Soto’s First Winter Encampment. In The Coronado Expedition to Tierra Nueva: The 1540–1542 Route across the Southwest, edited by Richard Flint and Shirley Cushing Flint, pp. 116–134. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Ewert, William B. 1983 Causes of Mortality in a Subarctic Settlement (York Factory, Man.), 1714–1946. Canadian Medical Association Journal 129:571–574.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, William R. 2001 Contact, Neutral Iroquoian Transformation, and the Little Ice Age. In Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodlands Indians, AS. 1400–1700, edited by David S. Brose, C. Wesley Cowan, and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., pp. 37–48. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Glover, Richard (editor) 1962 David Thompson’s Narrative, 1774–1812. Champlain Society, Toronto, Ontario.Google Scholar
Hackett, Paul 2002 A Very Remarkable Sickness: Epidemics in the Petit Nord, 1670 to 1846. University of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggett, Peter 2000 The Geographical Structure of Epidemics. Clarendon Press, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hann, John H. 1988 Apalachee: The Land between the Rivers. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Hann, John H. 1991 Missions to the Calusa. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Hariot, Thomas 1590 A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia. Dover, New York.Google Scholar
Henige, David P. 1998 Numbers from Nowhere. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Hoffman, Paul E. 1997 Did Coosa Decline between 1541 and 1560? Florida Anthropologist 50:25–30.Google Scholar
Hughes, Donald J. 1983 American Indian Ecology. Texas Western Press, El Paso.Google Scholar
Hull, Kathleen L. 2009 Pestilence and Persistence: Yosemite Indian Demography and Culture in Colonial California. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Hunn, Eugene S., and Selam, James 1991 Nch’i-Wana, “The Big River:” Mid-Columbia Indians and Their Land. University of Washington Press, Seattle.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, Dale L. 1990 Postcontact Biocultural Change: Mortuary Site Evidence. In Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, Vol. 2, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 61–70. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, Dale L. 2013 Entradas and Epidemics in the Sixteenth-Century Southeast. In Native and Spanish New Worlds: Sixteenth-Century Entradas in the American Southwest and Southeast, edited by Clay Mathers, Jeffrey M. Mitchem, and Charles M. Haecker, pp. 140–151. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Jones, B. Calvin, and Shapiro, Gary 1990 Nine Mission Sites in Apalachee. In Columbian Consequences: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands East, Vol. 2, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 491–510. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Jones, Eric E. 2010a Population History of the Onondaga and Oneida Iroquois, AD 1500–1700. American Antiquity 75:387–407.Google Scholar
Jones, Eric E. 2010b Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Population Trends in Northeastern North America. Journal of Field Archaeology 35:5–18.Google Scholar
Jones, Eric E. 2010c An Analysis of Factors Influencing Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Settlement Locations. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29:1–14.Google Scholar
Jones, Eric E., and DeWitte, Sharon N. 2012 Spatial Analysis of Old World Disease Events among Native American Populations in Northeastern North America, AD 1616–1645. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 31:83–92.Google Scholar
Kelley, J. Charles 1952 The Historic Indian Pueblos of La Junta de los Ríos (Part 1). New Mexico Historical Review 27:257–295.Google Scholar
Kellog, Louise P. (editor) 1917 Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634–1699. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Kelton, Paul 2002 The Great Southeastern Smallpox Epidemic, 1696–1700: The Region’s First Major Epidemic? In The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540–1760, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Charles Hudson, pp. 21–38, University of Mississippi Press, Jackson.Google Scholar
Kelton, Paul 2009 Shattered and Infected: Epidemics and the Origins of the Yamasee War, 1696–1715. In Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South, edited by Robbie Ethridge and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, pp. 312–332, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Kroeber, A.L. 1963 Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. Originally published 1939, University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kulisheck, Jeremy 2010 “Like Butterflies on a Mounting Board:” Pueblo Mobility and Demography before 1825. In Across a Great Divide: Continuity and Change in Native North American Societies, 1400–1900, edited by Laura L. Scheiber and Mark D. Mitchell, pp. 174–191. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Larsen, Clark Spencer, and Milner, George R. (editors) 1994 In the Wake of Contact: Biological Responses to Conquest. Wiley-Liss, New York.Google Scholar
Larsen, Clark Spencer, Ruff, Christopher B., Schoeninger, Margaret J., and Hutchinson, Dale L. 1992 Population Decline and Extinction in La Florida. In Disease and Demography of the Americas, edited by John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, pp. 25–40. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Lawson, John 1967 A New Voyage to Carolina. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Lehmer, Donald J. 1977 Epidemics among the Indians of the Upper Missouri. Reprints in Anthropology 8:105–111.Google Scholar
Levy, Janet E., Alan May, J., and Moore, David G. 1990 From Ysa to Joara: Cultural Diversity in the Catawba Valley from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century. In Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, Vol. 2, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 153–168. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Lewis, Clifford M., and Loomie, Albert J. 1953 The Spanish Jesuit Mission in Virginia, 1570–1572. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Mantel, Nathan 1967 The Detection of Disease Clustering and a Generalized Regression Approach. Cancer Research 27:209–220.Google Scholar
Marquardt, William H. 2001 The Emergence and Demise of the Calusa. In Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodlands, A.D. 1400–1700, edited by David S. Brose, C. Wesley Cowan, and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., pp. 157–172. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Marrinan, Rochelle A., Scarry, John F., and Majors, Rhonda L. 1990 Prelude to de Soto: The Expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez. In Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, Vol. 2, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 71–82. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
May, Jacques M. 1958 The Ecology of Human Disease. MD Publications, New York.Google Scholar
Meighan, Clement W. 1971 The Archaeology of Sinaloa. In Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica, Part 2, edited by Gordon F. Ekholm and Gordon R. Willey, pp. 754–767. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 11, University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Mendieta, Fray Gerónimo de 1945 Historia Eclesiastica Indiana. Editorial Salvador Chavez Hayhoe, Mexico.Google Scholar
Milner, George R. 1980 Epidemic Disease in the Postcontact Southeast: A Reappraisal. Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology 5:39–56.Google Scholar
Milner, George R., and Chaplin, George 2010 Eastern North American Population at ca. A.D. 1500. American Antiquity 75(4):707–726.Google Scholar
Milner, George R., Anderson, David G., and Smith, Marvin T. 2001 The Distribution of Eastern Woodlands Peoples at the Prehistoric and Historic Interface. In Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodlands, A.D. 1400–1700, edited by David S. Brose, C. Wesley Cowan, and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., pp. 9–18. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Mitchem, Jeffrey M. 1990 Initial Spanish-Indian Contact in West Peninsular Florida: The Archaeological Evidence. In Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, vol. 2, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 49–59. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Montané-Martí, Julio C. 1995 Francisco de Ulloa: Explorador de Ilusiones. Coleción Alforja del Tiempo No. 1. Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico.Google Scholar
Mooney, James 1928 The Aboriginal Population of America North of Mexico, edited by J.R. Swanton. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Ocaranza, Fernando 1995 Historia de la Medicina en México. Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, Directión General de Publicaciones, Mexico City.Google Scholar
O’Sullivan, David, and Unwin, David J. 2003 Geographical Information Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Palkovich, Ann M. 1985 Historic Population of the Eastern Pueblos: 1540–1910. Journal of Anthropological Research 41:401–426.Google Scholar
Palkovich, Ann M. 1994 Historic Epidemics of the American Pueblos. In In the Wake of Contact: Biological Responses to Conquest, edited by Clark S. Larsen and George R. Milner, pp. 87–95. Wiley-Liss, New York.Google Scholar
Palou, Fray Francisco 1926 Historical Memoirs of New California. Translated by H. E. Bolton. O.F.M. Vol. 2. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Perttula, Timothy K. 1991 European Contact and Its Effects on Aboriginal Caddoan Populations between A.D. 1520 and A.D. 1680. In Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, Vol. 3, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 501–518. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Quinn, David B. 1955 The Roanoke Voyages, 1584–1590. 2 Vols. Hakluyt Society, London.Google Scholar
Ramenofsky, Ann F. 1987 Vectors of Death: The Archaeology of European Contact. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Ramenofsky, Ann F. 1990 Loss of Innocence: Explanations of Differential Persistence in the Sixteenth-Century Southeast. In Columbian Consequences: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, Vol. 2, edited by David Hurst Thomas, pp. 31–48. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Ramenofsky, Ann F. 1996 The Problem of Introduced Infectious Diseases in New Mexico: AD 1540–1680. Journal of Anthropological Research 52:161–184.Google Scholar
Ramenofsky, Ann F., and Kulisheck, Jeremy 2013 Regarding Sixteenth-Century Native Population Change in the Northern Southwest. In Native and Spanish New Worlds: Sixteenth-Century Entradas in the American Southwest and Southeast, edited by Clay Mathers, Jeffrey M. Mitchem, and Charles M. Haecker, pp. 123–139. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Ramenofsky, Ann F., Wilbur, Alicia K., and Stone, Anne C. 2003 Native American Disease History: Past, Present and Future Directions. World Archaeology 35:241–257.Google Scholar
Reff, Daniel 1987 The Introduction of Smallpox into the Greater Southwest. American Anthropologist 89:704–708.Google Scholar
Reff, Daniel 1991 Disease, Depopulation, and Culture Change in North west New Spain, 1518–1764. University of Utah Press, Provo.Google Scholar
Reid, John Phillip 1976 A Better Kind of Hatchet: Law, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Cherokee Nation during the Early Years of European Contact. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.Google Scholar
Sakai, Takatsugu, Suzuki, Hiroshi, Sasaki, Asami, Saito, Reiko, Tanabe, Naohito, and Taniguchif, Kiyosu 2004 Geographic and Temporal Trends in Influenza-Like Illness, Japan, 1992–1999. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10:1822–1826.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sempowski, Martha L., and Saunders, Lorraine P. 2001 Dutch Hollow and Factory Hollow: The Advent of Dutch Trade among the Seneca. Research Records No. 24. Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester, New York.Google Scholar
Shiels, W. Eugene 1934 Gonzalo de Tapia (1561–1594), Founder of the First Permanent Jesuit Mission in North America. United States Catholic Historical Society, New York.Google Scholar
Smith, Marvin T. 1987 Archaeology of Aboriginal Culture Change in the Interior Southeast. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Snow, Dean R. 1980 The Archaeology of New England. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Snow, Dean R. 1994 The Iroquois. Blackwell, New York.Google Scholar
Snow, Dean R. 1995a Mohawk Valley Archaeology: The Sites. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.Google Scholar
Snow, Dean R. 1995b Microchronology and Demographic Evidence Relating to the Size of Pre-Columbian North American Indian Populations. Science 268:1601–1604.Google Scholar
Snow, Dean R., and Lanphear, Kim M. 1988 European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics. Ethnohistory 35:15–33.Google Scholar
Snow, Dean R., and Starna, William A. 1989 Sixteenth-Century Depopulation: A View from the Mohawk Valley. American Anthropologist 91:142–149.Google Scholar
St. Cosme, J. F. B. 1861 Letter to the Bishop of Quebec. In Early Voyages up and down the Mississippi, edited by L. C. Shea. Joel Munsell, Albany, New York.Google Scholar
Stannard, David E. 1993 American Indian Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Stodder, Ann L. W., and Martin, Debra L. 1992 Health and Disease in the Southwest before and after Spanish Contact. In Disease and Demography of the Americas, edited by John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, pp. 55–74. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Sundstrom, Linea 1997 Smallpox Used Them Up: References to Epidemic Disease in Northern Plains Winter Counts, 1714–1920. Ethnohistory 44:305–343.Google Scholar
Tello, Fray Antonio 1891 Libro Segundo de la Cronica Misceldnea de la Santa Provincia de Xalisco. La República Literaria, Guadalajara.Google Scholar
Thomas, David Hurst (editor) 1990 Columbian Consequences. 3 Vol. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Thornton, Russell 1987 American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Thornton, Russell 1990 The Cherokees: A Population History. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.Google Scholar
Thornton, Russell 1997 Aboriginal North American Population Decline and Rates of Decline, ca. A.D. 1500–1900. Current Anthropology 38:310–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thwaites, Reuben Gold (editor) 1959 Jesuit Relations and Related Documents. 73 Vols. Pageant, New York.Google Scholar
Trigger, Bruce D. 1994 Natives and Newcomers: Canada’s “Heroic Age” Reconsidered. 2nd ed. McGill-Queens, Montréal.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1976 Prehistoric New World Population Size: Historical Review and Current Appraisal of North American Estimates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 45:661–666.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1988 North American Population Size, A.D. 1500 to 1985. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77:289–294.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, Douglas H. 1992 Patterns of Demographic Change in the Americas. Human Biology 64:361–379.Google Scholar
Upham, Steadman 1986 Smallpox and Climate in the American Southwest. American Anthropologist 88:115–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verano, John W., and Ubelaker, Douglas H. (editors) 1992 Disease and Demography in the Americas. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Walker, Phillip L., and Johnson, John R. 1992 Effects of Contact on the Chumash Indians. In Disease and Demography of the Americas, edited by John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, pp. 127–139. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R.P. Jr. 1999 Time before History: the Archaeology of North Carolina. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
Ward, H. Trawick, and Stephen Davis, R.P. Jr. 2001 Tribes and Traders on the North Carolina Piedmont, A.D. 1000–1710. In Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodlands Indians, A.D. 1400–1700, edited by David S. Brose, C. Wesley Cowan, and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., pp. 125–142. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Warrick, Gary 2008 A Population History of the Huron-Petun, A.D. 500–1650. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Weber, David J. 1992 The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Wray, Charles F., Sempowski, Martha F., and Saunders, Lorraine P. 1991 Tram and Cameron: Two Early Contact Era Seneca Sites. Research Records No. 21. Rochester Museum and Science Center, Rochester, New York.Google Scholar