Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-5r2nc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-07T16:00:19.008Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Karl W. Butzer
Karl W. Butzer*
Affiliation:
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Civilizations represent human ecosystems amenable to systematic geo-archaeological analysis. The civilization of Axum, spanning the first millennium A.D., had its settlement core on the now-denuded, subhumid plateau of northern Ethiopia. Axum, a new city, began A.D. 100 as a ceremonial center, growing to over 10,000 people, as a prosperous emporium for international trade. Intensified land use led to mass movements in slope soils before A.D. 300, but a range of clayey stream deposits also implicates strong periodic floods and seasonally abundant moisture. The paleoclimatic ensemble suggests that stronger and more reliable spring rains allowed two crops yearly without irrigation, compared to only one with modern summer rains. Trade declined after 600 and Axum was essentially landlocked by 715. Intense land pressure and more erratic rainfall favored soil destruction and ecological degradation during the seventh and eighth centuries. Largely abandoned by 800 and pillaged by border tribes. Axum retained only symbolic significance as power shifted to the more fertile lands of humid central Ethiopia. Axum shows how the spatial and temporal variability of resources, and the interactions between a society and its resource base, can be fundamental in the analysis of historical process.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 46 , Issue 3 , July 1981 , pp. 471 - 495
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adams, W. Y. 1965 Sudan Antiquities Service excavations at Meinarti 1963-64. Kush 13:148–177.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1965 Chronique archéologique 1960-64. Annales d'Ethiopie 6:3–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1968 Les rois d'Axoum d'après la numismatique. Journal of Ethiopian Studies 6:1–5.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1970 Notes archéologiques. Annales d'Ethiopie 8:31–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1972a L'archéologie d'Axoum en 1972. Paideuma 18:60–78.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1972b Fouilles de Yeha. Annales d'Ethiopie 9:45–64.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1973 Nouveau sites antiques. Journal of Ethiopian Studies 11:13–23.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1974 Deux villes axoumites: Adoulis et Matara. Academia Nazionale dei Lincei (Roma) 191:745–765.Google Scholar
Beckingham, C. F., and Huntingford, G. W. B. (editors) 1961 The Prester John of the Indies (second series, vols. 114-115). The Hakluyt Society, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bell, Barbara, and Menzel, D. H. 1972 Research directed toward the observation and interpretation of solar phenomena. Final Report, U.S. Air Force Contract No. F19628-69-0077.Google Scholar
Bent, J. T. 1896 The sacred city of the Ethiopians. Longmans, Green, New York.Google Scholar
Bruce, James 1790 Travels to discover the source of the Nile in the years 1768-1773. W. Porter, Dublin.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1971 Recent history of an Ethiopian delta. University of Chicago Department of Geography, Research Paper 136:1–184.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1974 Accelerated soil erosion: a problem of man-land relationships. In Perspectives on Environment, edited by Manners, I. and Mikesell, M. W., pp. 57–78. Association of American Geographors, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1976 Early hydraulic civilization in Egypt: a study in cultural ecology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Butzer, K. W. 1978 Towards an integrated, contextual approach in archaeology: a personal view. Journal of Archaeological Science 5:191–193.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1979a The scope of geo-archeology. Paper presented at the Meetings of the Society for American Archaeology, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1979b Context in archeology: an alternative perspective. Plenary Session Paper presented at the 1979 Annual Meetings of the American Anthropological Association, Cincinnati.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1980a Holocene alluvial sequences: problems of dating and correlation. In TimescaJes in Geomorphology, edited by Cullingford, R. A., Davidson, D. A. and Lewin, J., pp. 131–142. Wiley, London.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1980b The Holocene lake plain of North Rudolf, East Africa. Physical Geography 1:42–58.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1980c Civilizations: organisms or systems? American Scientist 68:517–523.Google Scholar
Anfray, Francis 1980d Long-term Nile flood variation and political discontinuities in Pharaonic Egypt. In the causes and consequences of food production in Africa, edited by Clark, J. D. and Brandt, S.. University of California Press, Berkeley, in press.Google Scholar
Chittick, H. N. 1974 Excavations at Aksum: a preliminary report. Azania 9:159–205.Google Scholar
Chittick, H. N. 1976 Radiocarbon dates from Aksum. Azania 11:179–181.Google Scholar
Clark, J. D. 1976 The domestication process in sub-saharan Africa with special reference to Ethiopia. In Origins de l'élévage et de la domestication, edited by Higgs, E. S., pp. 56–115. Colloque XX, Union Internationale des Sciences Préhistoriques et Protohistoriques, Nice.Google Scholar
Contenson, Henri de 1959a Les fouilles à Axoum en 1957. Annales d'Ethiopie 3:25–42.Google Scholar
Contenson, Henri de 1959b Aperçus sur les fouilles a Axoum et dans la région d'Axoum en 1958 et 1959. Annoales d'Ethiopie 5:1–40.Google Scholar
Conti-Rossini, Carlo 1928 Storia d'Etiopia. I. A. Lucini, Milano.Google Scholar
Crawford, O. G. S. (editor) 1958 Ethiopian itineraries circa 1400-1524 (second series, no. 109). The Hakluyt Society, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Damon, P.E., Ferguson, C. W., Long, A., and Wallick, E. I. 1974 Dendrochronologic calibration of the radiocarbon time scale. American Antiquity 39:350–367.Google Scholar
Doresse, Jean 1957 L'empire du Prdtre-Jean. 2 vols. Plon, Paris.Google Scholar
Endt, D. W. Von 1977 Amino-acid analysis of the contents of a vial excavated at Axum, Ethiopia. Journal of Archaeological Science 4:367–376.Google Scholar
Fattovich, Rodolfo 1977 Some data for the study of cultural history in ancient northern Ethiopia. Nyame Akuma 10:6–18.Google Scholar
Flohn, Hermann 1965 Klimaprobleme am Roten Meer. Erdlcunde 19:179–191.Google Scholar
Gasse, F., Fontes, J. C., and Rognon, P. 1974 Variations hydrologiques et extension des lacs holocenes du Désert Danakil. Polaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 15:109–148.Google Scholar
Gerster, Georg 1972 Kirchen im Fels (second ed.). Atlantis, Zurich.Google Scholar
Godet, Eric 1977 Repertoire de sites pre-Axoumites et axoumites du Tigre (Ethiopia). Abbay 8:19–58.Google Scholar
Griffiths, J. F. 1971 Ethiopian highlands. World Survey of Climatology 10:369–388.Google Scholar
Harlan, J. R. 1971 Agricultural origins: centers and non-centers. Science 174:468–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hassan, F. A. n.d. Historical Nile floods and their implications for climatic change. Ms. in possession of author.Google Scholar
Hastenrath, Stefan 1974 Glaziale und periglaziale Formbildung in Hoch-Semyen, Nord-Athiopien. Erdkunde 28:176–186.Google Scholar
Heuglin, Theodor von 1868 Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Landern, Ost-Sudan und Chartum in den Jahren 1861 und 1862. H. Costenoble, Leipzig.Google Scholar
Hirth, Kenneth 1978 Interregional trade and the formation of prehistoric gateway communities. American Antiquity 43: 35–45.Google Scholar
Hunting Technical Services Ltd. 1976 Tigrai Aural Developmental Study. Relief and Rehabilitation Commission, Addis Ababa.Google Scholar
Hurni, Hans 1975 Bodenerosion in Semien-Athiopien. Geographica Helvetica 30:157–168.Google Scholar
Kazmin, V. (compiler) 1972 Geological map of Ethiopia (1:2,000,000). Geological Survey of Ethiopia, Ministry of Mines, Addis Ababa.Google Scholar
Kazmin, V. (compiler) 1972a The Christian Topography and the Kingdom of Axum. Geographical Journal 138:166–177.Google Scholar
Kirwan, L. P. 1972b An Ethiopian-Sudanese frontier zone in ancient history. Geographical Journal 138:457–465.Google Scholar
Kitchen, K. A. 1971 Punt and how to get there. Orientalia 40:184–207.Google Scholar
Kobishchanov, Y. M. 1979 Axum. Translated and edited by Kapitanoff, L. T. and Michels, J. W.. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park.Google Scholar
Krencker, Daniel 1913 Deutsche Axum Expedition II: Altere Denkmdler Nordabessiniens. 2 vols. G. Reimer, Berlin.Google Scholar
Leclant, Jean 1959 Les fouilles a Axoum en 1955-1956. AnnaJes d'Ethiopie 3:3–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, D. N. 1974 Greater Ethiopia: the evolution of a multiethnic society. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Littmann, Enno 1913 Deutsche Altsum-Expedition I: Topographic und Geschichte Aksum. G. Reimer, Berlin.Google Scholar
Lupke, Theodor von 1913 Deutsche Aksum Expedition III: Pro/an-und Kultbauten Nordabessiniens. G. Reimer, Berlin.Google Scholar
Merla, Giovanni, and Minucci, E. 1938 Missione geologica nel Tigrai, Vol. I: La serie dei terreni. 3 vols. R. Accademia d'ltalia, Rome.Google Scholar
Michels, J. W. 1975 Archaeological survey of the Axumite Kingdom, Tigre Province, Ethiopia. Paper, African Archaeology Meetings, Boston University.Google Scholar
Michels, J. W. 1979 Axumite archaeology: an introductory essay. In Axum, by Kobishchanov, Y. M., pp. 1–34. Pennsylvania University Press, University Park.Google Scholar
Mohr, P. A. 1971 The Geology of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie I University Press, Addis Ababa.Google Scholar
Mohr, P. A., and Rogers, A. S. 1966 Gravity traverses in Ethiopia (second interim report), with 3 appendices. Bulletin, Geophysical Observatory, Haile Selassie University 9:7–58.Google Scholar
Monneret de Villard, Ugo 1938 Aksum: ricerche di topografia generale. Analecta Orientalia 16:1–138.Google Scholar
Mountnorris, George A. (Lord Valentia) 1809 Voyages and travels to India, Ceylon, the fled Sea, Abyssinia and Egypt. Includes narratives of Henry Salt on Axum, pp. 80–101, 179-201. W. Miller, London.Google Scholar
Pankhurst, Richard 1961 An introduction to the economic history of Ethiopia. Sidgwick and Jackson, London.Google Scholar
Pankhurst, Richard 1966 The great famine of 1888-1892: a new assessment. Journal of History of Medicine 21:95–124, 271-294.Google ScholarPubMed
Pankhurst, Richard 1968 Economic history of Ethiopia 1800-1935. Haile Selassie I University Press, Addis Ababa.Google Scholar
Pankhurst, Richard 1972 The history of famine and pestilence in Ethiopia, prior to the founding of Gondar. Journal of Ethiopian Studies 10(2):37-64.Google Scholar
Pearce, Nathaniel 1831 The life and adventures of N. Pearce, written by himself during a residence in Abyssinia from the years 1810-1819. H. Colburn and R. Bentley, London.Google Scholar
Picchi-Sermolli, R. E. G. 1957 Una carta geobotanica dell'Africa orientale. Webbia, Raccolti di Scritti botanici 13:15–132.Google Scholar
Puglisi, Salvatore 1941 Primi risultati dalle indagine compiute della missions archeologica di Aksum. Africa Italiana 8(3-4): 96–153.Google Scholar
Schoff, W. H. (editor) 1912 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Longmans, Green, London.Google Scholar
Semmel, Arno 1971 Zur junquartären Klima- und Relief entwicklung in der Danakilwüste und ihren westlichen Randgebieten. Erdkunde 25:199–209.Google Scholar
Sergew Hable Sellassie, 1972 Ancient and medieval Ethiopian history to 1270. Haile Selassie I University Press, Addis Ababa.Google Scholar
Serjeant, R. B. 1964 Some irrigation systems in Hadramaut. Bulletin, Schools of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 27:33–76.Google Scholar
Serjeant, R. B. 1960a Northwest Ethiopia: peoples and economy. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Simoons, F.J. 1960b Snow in Ethiopia: a review of the evidence. Geographical Review 50:402–411.Google Scholar
Steudner, Wilhelm 1862 Reise von Keren nach Adoa vom 28. Oktober bis 14. November 1861, sowie Besuch von Axum. Zeitschrift für aligemeine Erdkunde N.F. 12:326–340.Google Scholar
Suzuki, Hideo 1967 Some aspects of Ethiopian climates. Ethiopian Geographical Journal 5:19–22.Google Scholar
Tamrat, Tadesse 1972 Church and state in Ethiopia 1270-1527. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Trimingham, J. S. 1965 Islam in Ethiopia. F. Cass, London.Google Scholar
Troll, Carl 1970 Die naturräumliche Gliederung Nord-Athiopiens. Erdkunde 24:249–268.Google Scholar
Troll, Carl, and Schottenloher, Rudolf 1939 Ergebnisse wissenschaftlicher Reisen in Athiopien. Petermann's Mitteilungen 85:217–238.Google Scholar
UNESCO 1958 Vegetation map of Africa south of the Tropic of Cancer (1:10 million). UNESCO, Paris.Google Scholar
Virgo, K. J., and Munro, R. N. 1978 Soil and erosion features of the central plateau region of Tigrai, Ethiopia. Geoderma 20:131–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vita-Finzi, Claudio 1969 The Mediterranean volleys: geological changes in historical times. Cambridge University Press, London.Google Scholar
Williams, M. A. J., Bishop, P. M., Dakin, F. M., and Gillespie, R. 1977 Late Quaternary lake levels in southern Afar and the adjacent Ethiopian Rift. Nature 267:690–693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, R. T. 1976 Some quantitative data on the Tigre salt trade from the early 19th century to the present day. Annali, Istituto Orientale di Napoli 36:157–270.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. T. 1977 The vegetation of Central Tigre, Ethiopia, in relation to its land use. Webbia 32:235–270.Google Scholar
Wolska-Conus, Wanda 1968 Cosmos fndicopleustes, topographie chrdtienne, I. Editions Cerf, Paris.Google Scholar