This book is intended to serve as an introduction to the multidisciplinary field of disorderly surface growth. It is a reasonably short book, and is not designed to review all of the recent work in this rapidly developing area. Rather, we have attempted to provide an introduction that is sufficiently thorough that much of the current literature can be profitably read. This literature spans many disciplines, ranging from applied mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology on the one hand to materials science and petroleum engineering on the other.

It is envisaged that this book may be of use in courses in many different departments, so no specific background on the part of the reader is assumed. Part 1 of the book is an introduction that should bring readers from a variety of disciplines to a common place of discourse. Thus the first chapter illustrates the range of natural examples of disorderly surface growth, and mentions without any use of mathematics a few of the key new ideas that serve to provide some insights. The second chapter introduces the scaling approach to describing surface growth, by focusing on a single tractable model system – ballistic deposition. No prior exposure to scaling concepts is assumed. The third and last chapter of Part 1 introduces the key fractal concepts of self-similarity and self-affinity.

Part 2 comprises five chapters devoted to the general topic of nonequilibrium roughening.

One of the main methods used to study the roughening of nonequilibrium interfaces is to construct discrete models and study them using computer simulations. To simulate the models on a computer and to study their scaling properties, we must use a number of numerical methods. If the model is simple, the corresponding simulation is also simple, e.g., a program to simulate RD or BD requires only a few lines. However, the analysis of the simulation results is far from being simple, requiring special care due to finite size effects, slow crossover behavior, and other complications. In this chapter we collect some additional methods that are useful in obtaining a thorough analysis of the scaling properties.

Measuring exponents for self-affine interfaces

As noted, α and β are universal exponents, which do not depend on the particular details of the model. Thus obtaining these scaling exponents helps to identify the universality class of the growth process. The method used for the determination of α and β for a particular interface depends on the information available. If the interface is obtained from numerical simulation, every detail of the interface and its dynamics can be extracted from the computer. However, experiments may not be able to follow every detail of the time evolution of the growth, and one can analyze only the final interface.

We briefly present five methods for the numerical analysis of a rough interface.

Thus far, we have seen that many surfaces are self-affine, and their scaling can be characterized using a single number – the roughness exponent α. This is because the statistical properties characterizing the surface are invariant under an anisotropic scale transformation (3.4). For characterizing the scaling properties of some surfaces, however, the roughness exponent by itself is not sufficient.

In this chapter, we discuss a class of surfaces whose scaling properties are describable only in terms of an infinite set of exponents. Since this class is an extension of self-affine surfaces, we will call them multiaffine surfaces. We shall see that the multi-affine behavior is reflected in the existence of an entire hierarchy of ‘local’ roughness exponents, i.e., the roughness exponent for multi-affine interfaces changes from site to site.

A number of models studied recently in the literature lead to multi-affine surfaces. For example, if the noise in the system has a power-law distribution, the interface is multi-affine for length scales shorter than a characteristic length scale ℓx, set by the noise (see §23.3). Similarly, the temporal fluctuations of the interface width in the saturated regime leads to a multi-affine function. Quenched noise, present in many experimental systems, leads naturally to power-law distributed noise, so one expects that multi-affine behavior might be present in such systems as well. Indeed, Sneppen and Jensen studied the temporal properties of the SOD model discussed in §10.2, and found this type of multi-affine behavior.

In this chapter, we describe a few models that have had a key impact on our knowledge about specific aspects of interface roughening. Due to intractable mathematical difficulties, numerical methods are commonly used to determine the scaling exponents for systems with d > 1. Most growth models originate from specific physical or biological problems, and only recently have been investigated using the methods described in this book.

Ballistic deposition

The ballistic deposition model introduced in Chapter 2 is the simplest version – termed the nearest-neighbor (NN) model because falling particles stick to the first nearest neighbor on the aggregate. If we allow particles to stick to a diagonal neighbor as well, we have the next-nearest neighbor (NNN) model (Fig. 8.1). Since the nonlinear term is present for both models (λ ≠ 0), the scaling properties for both models are described by the nonlinear theory. These two models therefore belong to the same universality class, since they share the same set of scaling exponents, α, β, and z. Their non-universal parameters, however, are different. For example, for the velocity V0 (see (A.13)), we find v0 = 2.14, 4.26 for the NN and NNN models, respectively. The coefficient λ of the nonlinear term differs as well, with λ = 1.30, 1.36, respectively.

The origin of the nonlinear term in the model is the lateral sticking rule, leading to the presence of voids.

The exact results presented in the previous chapter allow us to obtain the scaling exponents for d = 1, and reduce the number of independent scaling exponents to one. The same results can be obtained using the dynamic renormalization group method, which we now develop and use to study the scaling properties of the KPZ equation. In particular, we analyze the ‘flow equations’ and extract the exponents describing the KPZ universality class for d = 1. We also discuss numerical results leading to the values of the scaling exponents for higher dimensions.

Basic concepts

So far, we have argued that we can distinguish between various growth models based on the values of the scaling exponents α, β and z. The existence of universal scaling exponents and their calculation for various systems is a central problem of statistical mechanics. A main goal for many years has been to calculate the exponents for the Ising model, a simple spin model that captures the essential features of many magnetic systems. A major breakthrough occurred in 1971, when Wilson introduced the renormalization group (RG) method to permit a systematic calculation of the scaling exponents. Since then the RG has been applied successfully to a large number of interacting systems, by now becoming one of the standard tools of statistical mechanics and condensed matter physics. Depending on the mathematical technique used to obtain the scaling exponents, the RG methods can be partitioned into two main classes: real space and k-space (Fourier space) RG.

It is a truism to remark that no one – not even a theoretical physicist – can predict the future. Nonetheless, after asking the beleaguered reader to indulge in the rather extensive ‘banquet’ of the preceding 27 chapters, it seems only fair to offer a light ‘dessert’ that affords some outlook and perspective on this rapidly-evolving field.

What concepts loom above the details is a question worth addressing at the end of any large meal. Charles Kittel wrote his first edition of Introduction to Solid State Physics almost 50 years ago. He surely realized that solid state physics was a rapidly-evolving field, so his book ran the risk of becoming dated in short order. Therefore the first chapter systematically discusses the various crystal symmetries – and the group theory mathematics that describes these symmetries. The topics comprising solid state physics have changed rather dramatically, and most chapters of Kittel's 7th edition hardly resemble the chapters of the first edition. Nevertheless, the opening chapter of the first edition could serve as well today as an introduction to the essential underpinnings of the subject.

Inspired by Kittel's example, we have attempted in this short book to highlight where possible what seems to us to be the analog for disorderly surface growth of the various symmetries obeyed by crystalline materials. These newer ‘symmetries’, described using terms that may frighten the neophyte – such as scale invariance and self-affinity – are as straightforward to describe as translation, rotation, and inversion.

The increasing interest of researchers in the basic properties of growth processes has provided the initiative for a number of experimental studies designed to check the applicability of various theoretical ideas to experimental systems. While many experimental studies have been inspired by the KPZ theory, most have failed to provide support for the KPZ prediction that α = ½. Instead, most data suggest that α > ½. These experimental results initiated a closer look at the theory, and led to the discovery that quenched noise affects the scaling exponents in unexpected ways. In this chapter, we discuss some of these key experiments, including fluid-flow experiments, paper wetting, propagation of burning fronts, growth of bacterial colonies and paper tearing. Atom deposition in molecular beam epitaxy, which is one important class of experiments on kinetic roughening of interfaces, will be discussed in Chapter 12. The new theoretical ideas needed to understand the effect of atomic diffusion on the roughening process will be developed at that time.

Fluid flow in a porous medium

Two-phase fluid flow experiments have long been used to study various growth phenomena. The Hele–Shaw cell, well-known from studies on growth instabilities in viscous fingering, has proved to be a useful experimental setup for the study of the growth of selfaffine interfaces. A trypical setup used in these experiments (Fig. 11.1) is a thin horizontal Hele–Shaw cell made from two transparent plates.

Most of this book deals with local growth processes, for which the growth rate depends on the local properties of the interface. For example, the interface velocity in the BD model depends only on the height of the interface and its nearest neighbors. However, there are a number of systems for which nonlocal effects contribute to the interface morphology and growth velocity. Such growth processes cannot be described using local growth equations, such as the KPZ equation; if we attempt to do so, we must include nonlocal effects. In this chapter we discuss phenomena that lead to nonlocal effects, and we also discuss models describing nonlocal growth processes.

Diffusion-limited aggregation

Probably the most famous cluster growth model is diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA). The model is illustrated in Fig. 19.1. We fix a seed particle on a central lattice site and release another particle from a random position far from the seed. The released particle moves following a Brownian trajectory, until it reaches one of the four nearest neighbors of the seed, whereupon it sticks, forming a two-particle cluster. Next we release a new particle which can stick to any of the six perimeter sites of this two-particle cluster. This process is then iterated repeatedly. In Fig. 19.2, we show clusters resulting from the deposition of 5 × 105, 5 × 106, and 5 × 107 particles.

As discussed in the previous chapters, we can distinguish the various growth processes based on the concept of universality. Interfaces that belong to the same universality class are described by the same scaling exponents, and they are also described by the same continuum equation.

The universality class is determined by the physical processes taking place at the surface. There are three basic microscopic processes that can play a major role in this respect: deposition, desorption, and surface diffusion. In addition to these, nonlocal effects such as shadowing may play a decisive role in shaping the interface morphology. While deposition must occur, the other microscopic processes may be irrelevant or even absent altogether. For example, in many systems desorption is negligible, while at low temperatures surface diffusion may be negligible.

A number of recent experiments support the existence of kinetic roughening in various deposition processes. It is possible to measure both the roughness exponent α characterizing the interface morphology, and the exponent β quantifying the dynamics of the roughening process. However, the emerging picture is far from complete, and there is no unambiguous support for the various universality classes.

There are a number of reasons for this situation. First, it is only recently that experimental groups have initiated systematic investigations of the various roughening processes. While the results are quite encouraging, more work is needed to obtain a coherent picture. Second, due to the complicated nature of the competing effects discussed in the previous chapters, the interpretation of the data is often not straightforward.

Introduction

The discovery that scaling laws and continuum theories are applicable to molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) has generated increasing interest among both experimentalists and theorists. The closer study of these deposition processes reveals the decisive role played by surface diffusion of the deposited particles. From the experimental point of view, these studies re-focus attention on a neglected aspect of MBE growth processes: roughening of a growing interface.

There are two complementary approaches to crystal growth:

(a) Atomistic approaches, in which the position of every atom is well defined. Our knowledge of the behavior of individual atoms has increased due to the high resolution of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). STM is capable of identifying not only the structure of the lattice, but the positions of the individual atoms as well. First principles calculations provide insight into the energetics of atomic motion on solid surfaces. Based on this detailed information, modeling of different growth processes on the atomic level is becoming a widely used tool to gain deeper insight on the collective nature of atomic motion and deposition processes.

(b) Continuum approaches view the interface on a coarse-grained scale, in which every property is averaged over a small volume containing many atoms. Neglecting the discrete nature of the growth process, continuum theories attempt to capture the essential mechanisms determining the growth morphology. Their predictive power is limited to length scales larger than the typical interatom distance, providing information on the collective nature of the growth process, such as the variation in the interface roughness or correlation functions.

ABSTRACT. In this paper experiments performed with the one-atom maser are reviewed. Furthermore, possible experiments to test basic quantum physics are discussed.

Introduction, the One-Atom-Maser

The most promising avenue to study the generation process of radiation in lasers and masers is to drive a maser consisting of a single mode cavity by single atoms. This system, at first glance, seems to be another example of a Gedanken-experiment treated in the pioneering work of Jaynes and Cummings (1963), but such a one-atom maser (Meschede, Walther and Müller, 1985) really exists and can in addition be used to study the basic principles of radiation-atom interaction. The advantages of the system are:

1. it is the first maser which sustains oscillations with less than one atom on the average in the cavity,

2. this setup allows to study in detail the conditions necessary to obtain nonclassical radiation, especially radiation with sub-Poissonian photon statistics in a maser system directly in a Poissonian pumping process, and

3. it is possible to study a variety of phenomena of a quantum field including the quantum measurement process.

What are the tools that make this device work: It was the enormous progress in constructing superconducting cavities together with the laser preparation of highly excited atoms – Rydberg atoms – that have made the realization of such a one-atom maser possible.