Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T02:57:25.957Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

1 - Tourism, cetaceans and sustainable development

Moving beyond simple binaries and intuitive assumptions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 April 2014

By
James Higham ,
Lars Bejder  and
Rob Williams
Edited by
James Higham ,
Lars Bejder  and
Rob Williams
James Higham
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Lars Bejder
Affiliation:
Murdoch University, Western Australia
Rob Williams
Affiliation:
University of St Andrews, Scotland
James Higham
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Lars Bejder
Affiliation:
Murdoch University, Western Australia
Rob Williams
Affiliation:
University of St Andrews, Scotland
Get access

Summary

The majestic aspects of whales – their size; the apparent intelligence of some whales; the songs of others – led to rediscovery of the old iconography – whales as magnificent in their own right

(Corkeron, 2006: 161)

Introduction

Of the few iconic experiences available in the natural world, little compares to killer whales (Orcinus orca) outwitting and overpowering their prey, a cooperative group of feeding humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), the flukes of a diving sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) or the spectacular aerial displays of socializing bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.). These stunning megafauna experiences explain the widespread rejection of whale hunting and the phenomenal growth of whale-watching in recent decades (Hoyt, 2001; O’Connor et al., 2009; Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2010). Under the circumstances, it is remarkable that these animals, and indeed all species of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises), vary so widely in the legal and management protection they receive in jurisdictions around the world.

Cetaceans trigger sentiments of awe, inspiration and excitement. ‘Few creatures carry more emotion…than whales; and few issues arouse as much passion as whaling’ (Hammond, 2006: 54). These emotions and passions give rise to deeply entrenched and, at times, bitterly conflicting views on whales in terms of utility, identity, nationhood and sovereignty. The sinking of the Ady Gil, flagship of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, while protesting against the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Ocean whale sanctuary in 2010 highlights these entrenched views. Few wildlife species are contested as intensely as whales.

Type
Chapter
Information
Whale-watching
Sustainable Tourism and Ecological Management
 , pp. 1 - 16
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, S., Smith, H., Waples, K. & Harcourt, R. (2007). The voluntary code of conduct for dolphin watching in Port Stephens, Australia: Is self regulation an effective management tool? Journal of Cetacean Resource Management 9(2), 159–166.Google Scholar
Bailey, J.L. (2012). Whale-watching, the Buenos Aires Group and the politics of the International Whaling Commission. Marine Policy 36, 489–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, C.S. & Herman, L.M. (1989). Behavioural responses of summering humpback whales to vessel traffic: Experimental and opportunistic observations. Final report to the National Park Service, Alaska Regional Office, Anchorage, Alaska.
Baker, C.S., Perry, A. & Vequist, G. (1988). Humpback whales of Glacier Bay, Alaska. Whalewatcher Fall, 13–17.
Beale, C.M. & Monaghan, P. (2004a). Behavioural responses to human disturbance: A matter of choice. Animal Behavior 68, 1065–1069.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beale, C.M. & Monaghan, P. (2004b). Human disturbance: People as predation-free predators? Journal of Applied Ecology 41, 335–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaumont, N. (2001). Ecotourism and the conservation ethic: Recruiting the uninitiated or preaching to the converted? Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9(4), 317–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becken, S. & Schellhorn, M. (2007). Ecotourism, energy use and the global climate: Widening the local perspective. In Higham, J.E.S. (Ed.), Critical Issues in Ecotourism: Understanding a complex tourism phenomenon. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 85–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bejder, L. & Samuels, A. (2003). Evaluating impacts of nature based tourism on cetaceans. In Gales, N., Hindell, M. & Kirkwood, R. (Eds), Marine Mammals: Fisheries, tourism and management issues. Collingwood: CSIRO, pp. 229–256.Google Scholar
Bejder, L., Dawson, S.M. & Harraway, J.A. (1999). Responses by Hector's dolphins to boats and swimmers in Porpoise Bay, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science 15(3), 738–750.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bejder, L., Samuels, A., Whitehead, H., et al. (2006). Decline in relative abundance of bottlenose dolphins exposed to long-term disturbance. Conservation Biology 20, 1791–1798.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bejder, L., Samuels, A., Whitehead, H., Finn, H. & Allen, S. (2009). Impact assessment research: Use and misuse of habituation, sensitisation and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to anthropogenic stimuli. Marine Ecology Progress Series 395, 177–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Björgvinsson, A. (2003). Iceland, whale v/s whale-watching. Available from
Blamey, R. & Braithwaite, V. (1997). A social values segmentation of the potential ecotourism market. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 5(1), 29–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blane, J.M. & Jaakson, R. (1995). The impact of ecotourism boats on the Saint Lawrence beluga whales. Environmental Conservation 21(3), 267–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, R. & Hinch, T. (Eds) (1996). Tourism and Indigenous Peoples. London: International Thomson Business Press.Google Scholar
Butler, R. W. (1990). Alternative tourism: Pious hope or trojan horse? Journal of Travel Research 28(3), 40–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campagna, C., Rivarola, M.M., Greene, D. & Tagliorette, A. (1995). Watching southern right whales in Patagonia. Unpublished report to UNEP, Nairobi.
Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1991). Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas. Parks 2(3), 31–35.Google Scholar
Cisneros-Montemayor, A.M., Sumaila, U.R., Kaschner, K. & Pauly, D. (2010). The global potential for whale-watching. Marine Policy 34, 1273–1278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constantine, R. (2001). Increased avoidance of swimmers by wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) due to long-term exposure to swim-with-dolphin tourism. Marine Mammal Science 17(4), 689–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coria, J. & Calfucura, E. (2012). Ecotourism and the development of indigenous communities: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Ecological Economics 73, 47–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corkeron, P.J. (2006). How shall we watch whales? In Lavigne, D.M. (Ed.), Gaining Ground: In pursuit of ecological sustainability. Guelph, ON: International Fund for Animal Welfare, pp. 161–170.Google Scholar
Cornelissen, S. (2005). The Global Tourism System. Ashgate: Aldershot.Google Scholar
Dowling, R.K. and Sharp, J. (1996). Conservation-tourism partnerships in Western Australia. Tourism Recreation Research 22(1), 55–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffus, D.A., & Dearden, P. (1990). Nonconsumptive wildlife-oriented recreation: A conceptual framework. Biological Conservation 53(3), 213–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edds, P.L. & MacFarlane, J.A.F. (1987). Occurrence and general behaviour of balaenopterid cetaceans summering in the Saint Lawrence Estuary, Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65, 1363–1376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennell, D.A. (1998). Ecotourism in Canada. Annals of Tourism Research 25(1), 231–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garrod, B. & Fennell, D.A. (2004). An analysis of whale-watching codes of conduct. Annals of Tourism Research 31(2), 334–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gjerdalen, G. & Williams, PW. (2000). An evaluation of the utility of a whale watching code of conduct. Tourism Recreation Research 25(2), 27–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, J., Leaper, R., Hartley, F.G. & Chappell, O. (1992). Effects of whale watching on the surface and underwater acoustic behaviour of sperm whales off Kaikoura, New Zealand. Department of Conservation Science and Research Series. No. 52.Google Scholar
Hall, C.M. (1994). Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific: Appropriate tourism or a new form of ecological imperialism? In Cater, E. & Lowman, G.L. (Eds), Ecotourism: A sustainable option?Chichester, U.K.: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 137–158.Google Scholar
Hall, C.M. (2004). Tourism: Rethinking the social science of mobility. Pearson: Harlow, UK.Google Scholar
Hall, C.M. (2007). Scaling ecotourism: The role of scale in understanding the impacts of ecotourism. In Higham, J.E.S. (Ed.), Critical Issues in Ecotourism: Understanding a complex tourism phenomenon. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 243–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, C.M. & Boyd, S. (2003). Ecotourism in Peripheral Areas. Clevedon: Channel View Publications.Google Scholar
Hammond, P. (2006). Whale science – and how (not) to use it. Significance June 2006, 54–58.CrossRef
Herrera, G.E., & Hoagland, P. (2006). Commercial whaling, tourism, and boycotts: an economic perspective. Marine Policy 30, 261–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hetzer, D. (1965). Environment, tourism, culture. Links 1, np.Google Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. (Ed). (2007). Critical Issues in Ecotourism: Understanding a complex tourism phenomenon. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.Google Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Carr, A. (2002). Profiling visitors to Ecotourism Operations. Annals of Tourism Research 29(4), 1168–1171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Lusseau, D. (2004). Ecological impacts and management of tourist engagements with Cetaceans. In Buckley, R. (Ed.), Environmental Impacts of Ecotourism. Wallingford: CAB International, Wallingford.Google Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Lusseau, D. (2007). Urgent need for empirical research into whaling and whale-watching. Conservation Biology 21(2), 554–558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higham, J.E.S., & Lusseau, D. (2008). Slaughtering the goose that lays the golden egg: Are whaling and whale-watching mutually exclusive? Current Issues in Tourism 11(1), 63–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S. & Shelton, E. (2011). Tourism and wildlife habituation: Reduced population fitness or cessation of impact?Tourism Management 32(4), 1290–1298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S., Lusseau, D. & Hendry, W. (2008). The viewing platforms from which animals are observed in the wild: A discussion of emerging research directions. Journal of Ecotourism 7(2/3), 132–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higham, J.E.S., Bejder, L. & Lusseau, D. (2009). An integrated and adaptive management model to address the long-term sustainability of tourist interactions with cetaceans. Environmental Conservation 35, 294–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinch, T.D. (1998). Ecotourists and indigenous hosts: Diverging views on their relationship with nature. Current Issues in Tourism 1(1), 120–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyt, E. (2001). Whale-watching 2000: Worldwide tourism numbers, expenditures, and expanding socioeconomic benefits. Crowborough, East Sussex, UK: International Fund for Animal Welfare.Google Scholar
Hoyt, E., & Hvenegaard, G.T. (2002). A review of whale-watching and whaling with applications for the Caribbean. Coastal Management 30(4), 381–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and Tethys European Conservation (1995). Report of the Workshop on the Scientific Aspects of Managing Whale-watching. International Fund for Animal Welfare, Tethys European Conservation, Montecastello di Vibio, Italy.Google Scholar
Janik, V.M. & Thompson, P.M. (1996). Changes in surfacing patterns of bottlenose dolphins in response to boat traffic. Marine Mammal Science 12, 597–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, M. & Harcourt, R. (2010). Aligning tourist, industry and government expectations: A case study from the swim with whales industry in Tonga. Marine Policy 34, 1350–1356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, J. (2009). Making wildlife viewable: Habituation and attraction. Society and Animals 17, 167–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuo, H.-I., Chen, C.-C. & McALeer, M. (2012). Estimating the impact of whaling on global whale-watching. Tourism Management 33(6), 1321–1328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lachmuth, C.L., Barrett-Lennard, L.G., Steyn, D.Q. & Milsom, W.K. (2011). Estimation of southern resident killer whale exposure to exhaust emissions from whale-watching vessels and potential adverse health effects and toxicity thresholds. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62(4), 792–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, E., Hunter, C., Pierce, G.J., & MacLeod, D. (2010). Sustainable whale-watching tourism and climate change: Towards a framework of resilience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism (Special Issue: Tourism: Adapting to Climate Change and Climate Policy) 18(3), 409–427.Google Scholar
Lemelin, R.H. (2006). The gawk, the glance, and the gaze: Ocular consumption and polar bear tourism in Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. Current Issues in Tourism 9(6), 516–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lima, S.L. & Dill, L.M ( 1990). Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: A review and prospectus. Canadian Journal of Zoology 68, 619–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindberg, K. and McKercher, B. (1997). Ecotourism: A critical overview. Pacific Tourism Review 1, 65–79.Google Scholar
Lusseau, D., Bejder, L., Corkeron, P., Allen, S. & Higham, J.E.S. (2013). Learning from past mistakes: A new paradigm for managing whale-watching. Conservation Letters (under review).
McCormick, J. (1989). The Global Environmental Movement. London: Belhaven Press.Google Scholar
Meletis, Z.A. & Campbell, L.M. (2007). Call it consumption! Re-conceptualizing ecotourism as consumption and consumptive. Geography Compass 1, 850–870.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, S.A. & Rodger, K. (2010). Wildlife tourism as a common pool resource issue: Enabling conditions for sustainability governance. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 18(7), 831–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muloin, S. (1998). Wildlife tourism: The psychological benefits of whale-watching. Pacific Tourism Review 2, 199–213.Google Scholar
Mustika, P.L.K., Birtles, A., Welters, R. & Marsh, H. (2012a). The economic influence of community-based dolphin watching on a local economy in a developing country: Implications for conservation. Ecological Economics 79, 11–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mustika, P.L.K., Birtles, A., Everingham, Y. & Marsh, H. (2012b). The human dimensions of wildlife tourism in a developing country: Watching spinner dolphins at Lovina, Bali, Indonesia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 20(2), 1–23.Google Scholar
Neves, K. (2010). Cashing in on Cetourism: A critical ecological engagement with dominant E-NGO discourses on whaling, cetacean conservation, and whale-watching. Antipode 42(3), 719–741.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novacek, S.M., Wells, R.S. & Solow, A.R. (2001). Short-term effects of boat traffic on bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, in Sarasota Bay, Florida. Marine Mammal Science 17(4), 673–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, S., Campbell, R., Cortez, H. & Knowles, T. (2010). Whale-watching Worldwide: Tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits. Special report for the International Fund for Animal Welfare prepared by Economists at Large. Yarmouth, MA: International Fund for Animal Welfare.Google Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1995). Towards a more desirable form of ecotourism. Tourism Management 16(1), 3–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (1997). The effectiveness of environmental education: Can we turn tourists into ‘greenies’?Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research 3, 295–306.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orams, M.B. (2000). Tourists getting close to whales, is it what whale-watching is all about? Tourism Management 21, 561–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M. (2003). Seal management in Scotland: Tourist perceptions and the possible impacts on the Scottish tourism industry. Current Issues in Tourism 6(6), 540–546.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M., & Draheim, M. (2009). A reason not to support whaling – A tourism impact case study from the Dominican Republic. Current Issues in Tourism 12(4), 397–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M. & Rawles, C. (2003). The resumption of whaling by Iceland and the potential negative impact in the Icelandic whale-watching market. Current Issues in Tourism 6(5), 444–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, E.C.M., Warburton, C.A., Woods-Ballard, A., Hughes, A. & Johnston, P. (2003). The value of conserving whales: The impacts of cetacean-related tourism on the economy of rural West Scotland. Aquatic Conservation 13(5), 397–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rawles, C.J.G. & Parsons, E.C.M. (2004). Environmental motivation of whale-watching tourists in Scotland. Tourism in Marine Environments 1(2), 129–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ris, M. (1993). Conflicting cultural values: Whale tourism in Northern Norway. Arctic 46(2), 156–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salvado, C.A.M., Kleiber, P. & Dizon, A.E. (1992). Optimal course by dolphins for detection avoidance. Fishery Bulletin 90, 417–420.Google Scholar
Smestad, T.H. (1997). Images of Whales, Whaling and Whalers: A rhetorical study of the controversies over Norwegian Minke whaling. M.A. thesis. University of Oslo, University of Maastricht.Google Scholar
Tremblay, P. (2001). Wildlife tourism consumption: Consumptive or non-consumptive? International Journal of Tourism Research 3, 81–86.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNEP. (2002). Tour operators launch new performance indicators to promote environment friendly tourism. Press release 13 November. London/Nairobi.
Urry, J. (2002). The Tourist Gaze (2nd edn). London: Sage.Google Scholar
Valentine, P. S. (1993). Ecotourism and nature conservation: A definition with some recent developments in Micronesia. Tourism Management 14(2), 107–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, D. & Lawton, L. (2009). Tourism Management (4th edn). Milton, Australia: Wiley.Google Scholar
Weiler, B. & Ham, S. (2001). Tour guides and interpretation. In Weaver, D. (Ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism. Wallingford, UK:CABI Publishing, pp. 549–564.Google Scholar
Wheeler, B. (1991). Tourism's troubled times: Responsible tourism is not the answer. Tourism Management 12(2), 91–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittaker, D. & Knight, R.L. (1998). Understanding wildlife responses to humans. Wildlife Society Bulletin 26, 312–317.Google Scholar
Wight, P. (1993). Ecotourism: Ethics or eco-sell? Journal of Travel Research 31(3), 3–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, N. (2006). Iceland shunned over whale hunting. Current Biology, 16(23), R975–R976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, R., Trites, A.W. &, Bain, D.E. (2002). Behavioural responses of killer whales (Orcinus orca) to whale-watching boats: Opportunistic observations and experimental approaches. Journal of Zoology 256, 255–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R., Lusseau, D. & Hammond, P. (2006). Estimating relative energetic costs of human disturbance to killer whales (Orcinus orca). Biological Conservation 133(3), 301–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R., Lusseau, D. & Hammond, P. (2009). The role of social aggregations and protected areas in killer whale conservation: The mixed blessing of critical habitat. Biological Conservation 142, 709–719.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Wildlife Fund (2012). Progress for whales at IWC meeting. Retrieved from (9 July 2012).

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×