Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T01:50:02.935Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

8 - Urban ecology and human social organisation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
Paige S. Warren ,
Sharon L. Harlan ,
Christopher Boone ,
Susannah B. Lerman ,
Eyal Shochat  and
Ann P. Kinzig
Edited by
Kevin J. Gaston
Kevin J. Gaston
Affiliation:
University of Sheffield
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Consider a tree, growing in a forest. Its fate, in terms of growth rate, longevity and reproduction, is regulated by a suite of biotic and abiotic factors, such as soil moisture, competition with other plants and interactions with natural enemies. Its branches, leaves and roots contribute to nutrient and water cycles. The tree provides habitat for animals – insects, birds, mammals. Understanding these interactions falls squarely in the domain of classical ecology. Now, imagine that the tree and its surrounding forest is part of a city, the trees interspersed with houses, streets, lawns and gardens. Here, the fate of the tree becomes strongly intertwined with the lives and decisions of humans. Its longevity, reproductive rate and contributions to the larger ecosystem are mediated by a complex suite of anthropogenic processes. In this setting, the tree's life cycle may differ from that of all of its ancestors: its ‘birth’ perhaps in a commercial nursery, its dispersal through an economic system of marketing and transportation, its growth determined by local application of fertiliser by a resident or a lawn care firm, its ultimate removal (death/decay) perhaps mediated by city policies on tree hazards, its reproduction quelled entirely. Yet, the tree and its urban forest still contribute to ecosystem processes. It provides habitat for animals, and its leaves, branches and roots still influence the flow of water through the urban ecosystem. Humans, therefore, both consciously and unconsciously sculpt biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in cities (and elsewhere).

Type
Chapter
Information
Urban Ecology , pp. 172 - 201
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alberti, M., Marzluff, J. M., Shulenberger, E.et al. (2003). Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. BioScience, 53, 1169–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batty, M. (2008). The size, scale, and shape of cities, Science, 319, 769–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bédarida, F. (1979). A Social History of England, 1851–1975. London and New York: Methuen.Google Scholar
Bhatti, M. and Church, A. (2004). Home, the culture of nature and meanings of gardens in late modernity. Housing Studies, 19, 37–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, C. A., Boermans, H. J., Ng, P., Campbell, G. D. and Struger, J. (1998a). Health of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) nesting in pesticide-sprayed apple orchards in Ontario, Canada. I. Immunological parameters. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health – Part A – Current Issues, 55, 531–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bishop, C. A., Kraak, G. J., Ng, P., Smits, J. E. G. and Hontela, A. (1998b). Health of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) nesting in pesticide-sprayed apple orchards in Ontario, Canada. II. Sex and thyroid hormone concentrations and testes development. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health – Part A, 55, 561–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackburn, J. and Arthur, W. (2001). Comparative abundance of centipedes on organic and conventional farms, and its possible relation to declines in farmland bird populations. Basic and Applied Ecology, 2, 373–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. B. (1996). Land use and avian species diversity along an urban gradient. Ecological Applications, 6, 506–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. B. and Johnson, E. M. (2008). Suburban habitats and their role for birds in the urban-rural habitat network: points of local invasion and extinction?Landscape Ecology, 23, 1157–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolin, B., Grineski, S. and Collins, T. (2005). The geography of despair: environmental racism and the making of South Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Research in Human Ecology, 12, 156–68.Google Scholar
Boone, C. G. (2008). Environmental justice as process and new avenues for research. Environmental Justice, 3, 149–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, C. G., Cadenasso, M. L., Grove, J. M., Schwartz, K. and Buckley, G. L. (2009). Landscape, vegetation characteristics, and group identity in an urban and suburban watershed: why the 60s matter. Urban Ecosystems. DOI: 10.1007/s11252-009-0118-7.CrossRef
Boone, C. G. and Modarres, A. (2006). City and Environment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, trans. Richard, Nice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brickle, N. W., Harper, D. G. C., Aebischer, N. J.and Cockayne, S. H. (2000). Effects of agricultural intensification on the breeding success of corn buntings Miliaria calandra. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 742–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Briggs, X. de S. (2004). Civilization in color: the multicultural city in three millennia. City and Community, 3, 311–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, R. L. (1998). Power, knowledge and political ecology in the third world: a review. Progress in Physical Geography, 22, 79–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burgess, E. W. (1928). Residential segregation in American cities. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 140, 105–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burghardt, K. T., Tallamy, D. W. and Shriver, W. G. (2009). Impact of native plants on bird and butterfly biodiversity in suburban landscapes. Conservation Biology, 23, 219–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, M. L. and Samuelson, L. J. (2008). Influence of urbanization on riparian forest diversity and structure in the Georgia Piedmont, US. Plant Ecology, 195, 99–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cadenasso, M. L., Pickett, S. T. A. and Schwarz, K. (2007). Spatial heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a framework for classification. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 5, 80–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannon, A. (1999). The significance of private gardens for bird conservation. Bird Conservation International, 9, 287–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring. New York: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Castells, M. (1977). The Urban Question. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Chace, J. F. and Walsh, J. J. (2006). Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landscape and Urban Planning, 74, 46–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chamberlain, D. E., Cannon, A. R. and Toms, M. P. (2004). Associations of garden birds with gradients in garden habitat and local habitat. Ecography, 27, 589–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaskin, R. J. (1997). Perspectives on neighborhood and community: a review of the literature. Social Service Review, 71, 521–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clergeau, P., Savard, J.-P. L., Mennechez, G. and Falardeau, G. (1998). Bird abundance and diversity along an urban–rural gradient: a comparative study between two cities on different continents. The Condor, 100, 413–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowgill, G. (2007). The urban organization of Teotihuacan, Mexico. In Stone, E. C., ed., Settlement and Society: Essays Dedicated to Robert McCormick Adams. Los Angeles: Costen Institute of Archaeology, pp. 261–95.Google Scholar
Cowie, R. J. and Hinsley, S. A. (1988). The provision of food and the use of bird feeders in suburban gardens. Bird Study, 35, 163–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craul, P. J. (1992). Urban Soil in Landscape Design. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Daniels, G. D. and Kirkpatrick, J. B. (2006). Does variation in garden characteristics influence the conservation of birds in suburbia?Biological Conservation, 133, 326–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Z. G., Fuller, R. A., Loram, A.et al. (2009). A national scale inventory of resource provision for biodiversity within domestic gardens. Biological Conservation, 142, 761–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeGraaf, R. M. and Wentworth, J. M. (1986). Avian guild structure and habitat associations in suburban bird communities. Urban Ecology, 9, 399–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeStefano, S. and DeGraaf, R. M. (2003). Exploring the ecology of suburban wildlife. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1, 95–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dhondt, A. A., Altizer, S., Cooch, E. G.et al. (2005). Dynamics of a novel pathogen in an avian host: mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in house finches. Acta Tropica, 94, 77–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duguay, S., Eigenbrod, F. and Fahrig, L. (2007). Effects of surrounding urbanization on non-native flora in small forest patches. Landscape Ecology, 22, 589–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duneier, M. (1999). Sidewalk. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Dunn, E. H. and Tessaglia, D. L. (1994). Predation of birds at feeders in winter. Journal of Field Ornithology, 65, 8–16.Google Scholar
Faeth, S. H., Warren, P. S., Shochat, E. and Marussich, W. A. (2005). Trophic dynamics in urban communities. BioScience, 55, 399–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleischer, A. L., Bowman, R. and Woolfenden, G. E. (2003). Variation in foraging behavior, diet, and time of breeding of Florida scrub-jays in suburban and wildland habitats. The Condor, 105, 515–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Florida, R. L. (2005). Cities and the Creative Class. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Forkenbrock, D. J. and Schweitzer, L. A. (1999). Environmental justice in transportation planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 65, 96–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, E. D. G. and Kenney, W. A. (2000). Cultural background and landscape history as factors affecting perceptions of the urban forest. Journal of Arboriculture, 26, 106–12.Google Scholar
French, K., Major, R. and Hely, K. (2005). Use of native and exotic garden plants by suburban nectarivorous birds. Biological Conservation, 121, 545–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frumkin, H. (2003). Healthy places: exploring the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1451–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, R. A., Evans, K. L., Davies, R. G.et al. (2007a). Bird densities are associated with household densities. Global Change Biology, 13, 1685–95.Google Scholar
Fuller, R. A., Irvine, K. N., Devine-Wright, P., Warren, P. H. and Gaston, K. J. (2007b). Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity. Biology Letters, 3, 390–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, R. A., Warren, P. H., Armsworth, P. R., Barbosa, O. and Gaston, K. J. (2008). Garden bird feeding predicts the structure of urban avian assemblages. Diversity and Distributions, 14, 131–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galster, G. C., Quercia, R. G. and Cortes, A. (2000). Identifying neighborhood thresholds: an empirical exploration. Housing Policy Debate, 11, 701–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gammage, G. (1999). Phoenix in Perspective. Phoenix, AZ: Herberger Center for Design.Google Scholar
Gaston, K. J., Fuller, R. A., Loram, A.et al. (2007). Urban domestic gardens (XI): variation in urban wildlife gardening in the UK. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16, 3227–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaston, K. J., Smith, R. M., Thompson, K. and Warren, P. H. (2005). Urban domestic gardens (II): experimental tests of methods for increasing biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation, 14, 395–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottdiener, M. and Hutchison, R. (2001). The New Urban Sociology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Grineski, S., Bolin, B. and Boone, C. (2007). Criteria air pollution and marginalized populations: environmental inequity in metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona. Social Science Quarterly, 88, 535–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groffman, P. M., Bain, D. J., Band, L. E.et al. (2003). Down by the riverside: urban riparian ecology. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1, 315–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groffman, P. M., Law, N. L., Belt, K. T., Band, L. E. and Fisher, G. T. (2004). Nitrogen fluxes and retention in urban watershed ecosystems. Ecosystems, 7, 393–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grove, J. M. and Burch, W. R. (1997). A social ecology approach to urban ecosystem and landscape analyses. Urban Ecosystems, 4, 259–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grove, J. M., Troy, A. R., O'Neil-Dunne, J. P. M.et al. (2006). Characterization of households and its implications for the vegetation of urban ecosystems. Ecosystems, 9, 578–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, P. (1988). The intellectual history of long waves. In Young, M. and Schuller, T., eds., The Rhythms of Society. London and New York: Routledge, pp. 37–52.Google Scholar
Harlan, S. L., Brazel, A. J., Prashad, L., Stefanov, W. L. and Larsen, L. (2006). Neighborhood microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress. Social Science and Medicine, 63, 2847–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, D. (1973). Social Justice and the City. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (1982). The Limits to Capital. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (2003). The New Imperialism. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hillier, A. (2003a). Spatial analysis of historical redlining: a methodological exploration. Journal of Housing Research, 1, 137–68.Google Scholar
Hillier, A. (2003b). Who received loans? Home owners' loan corporation lending and discrimination in Philadelphia in the 1930s. Journal of Planning History, 1, 3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, D., Gries, C., Warren, P.et al. (2004). How do humans restructure the biodiversity of the Sonoran desert? In Connecting Mountain Islands and Desert Seas: Biodiversity and Management of the Madrean Archipelago II, Vol. RMRS-P-26. Tucson, AZ: USDA Forest Service Proceedings (Fort Collins, CO), pp. 189–94.Google Scholar
Hope, D., Gries, C., Zhu, W. X.et al. (2003). Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 100, 8788–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ishigame, G., Baxter, G. S. and Lisle, A. T. (2006). Effects of artificial foods on the blood chemistry of the Australian magpie. Austral Ecology, 31, 199–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iverson, L. R. and Cook, E. A. (2000). Urban forest cover of the Chicago region and its relation to household density and income. Urban Ecosystems, 4, 105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, K. T. (1985). Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Jansson, C., Ekman, J. and Vonbromssen, A. (1981). Winter mortality and food-supply in tits Parus-spp. Oikos, 37, 313–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenerette, G. D., Harlan, S. L., Brazel, A.et al. (2007). Regional relationships between surface temperature, vegetation, and human settlement in a rapidly urbanizing ecosystem. Landscape Ecology, 22, 353–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, R., Poulsen, M. and Forrest, J. (2007). The geography of ethnic residential segregation: a comparative study of five countries. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 97, 713–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jokimäki, J., Suhonen, J., Inki, K. and Jokinen, S. (1996). Biogeographical comparison of winter bird assemblages in urban environments in Finland. Journal of Biogeography, 23, 379–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, D. N. and Reynolds, S. J. (2008). Feeding birds in our towns and cities: a global research opportunity. Journal of Avian Biology, 39, 265–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joseph, L. (2008). Finding space beyond variables: an analytical review of urban space and social inequalities. Spaces for Difference: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1, 29–50.Google Scholar
Kaplan, R. and Talbot, J. F. (1988). Ethnicity and preference for natural settings: a review and recent findings. Landscape and Urban Planning, 15, 107–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaye, J. P., Groffman, P. M., Grimm, N. B., Baker, L. A. and Pouyat, R. V. (2006). A distinct urban biogeochemistry?Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 21, 192–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keith, K. (2003). The spatial patterns of everyday life in old Babylonian neighborhoods. In Smith, M. L., ed., The Social Construction of Ancient Cities. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 56–80.Google Scholar
King, A. D. (1976). Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Kinzig, A. P., Warren, P., Martin, C., Hope, D. and Katti, M. (2005). The effects of human socioeconomic status and cultural characteristics on urban patterns of biodiversity. Ecology and Society, 10(1), 23 (online).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirby, A., Harlan, S. L., Larsen, L.et al. (2006). Examining the significance of housing enclaves in the metropolitan United States of America. Housing, Theory and Society, 23, 19–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkby, J., O'Keefe, P. and Howorth, C. (2001). Introduction: rethinking environment and development in Africa and Asia. Land Degradation and Development, 12, 195–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, J. B., Daniels, G. D. and Zagorski, T. (2007). Explaining variation in front gardens between suburbs of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. Landscape and Urban Planning, 79, 314–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krysan, M. and Farley, R. (2002). The residential preferences of blacks: do they explain persistent segregation?Social Forces, 80, 937–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuo, F. E., Bacaicoa, M. and Sullivan, W. C. (1998). Transforming inner-city landscapes – trees, sense of safety, and preference. Environment and Behavior, 30, 28–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuznets, S. S. (1967) [1930]. Secular Movements in Production and Prices: Their Nature and Their Bearing upon Cyclical Fluctuations. Reprints of economic classics. New York: A. M. Kelley.Google Scholar
Larsen, L. and Harlan, S. L. (2006). Desert dreamscapes: residential landscape preference and behavior. Landscape and Urban Planning, 78, 85–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Law, N. L., Band, L. E. and Grove, J. M. (2004). Nitrogen input from residential lawn care practices in suburban watersheds in Baltimore County, MD. Journal of Environmental Management, 47, 737–55.Google Scholar
Lee, S. W., Ellis, C. D., Kweon, B. S. and Hong, S. K. (2008). Relationship between landscape structure and neighborhood satisfaction in urbanized areas. Landscape and Urban Planning, 85, 60–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lepczyk, C. A., Mertig, A. G. and Liu, J. G. (2004). Assessing landowner activities related to birds across rural-to-urban landscapes. Environmental Management, 33, 110–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lepczyk, C. A., Warren, P. S., Machabée, L., Kinzig, A. P. and Mertig, A. Who feeds the birds? A comparison between Phoenix, Arizona and Southeastern Michigan. Studies in Avian Biology, in press.
Ley, D. (2003). Artists, aestheticisation and the field of gentrification. Urban Studies, 40, 2527–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Logan, J. and Molotch, H. (1987). Urban Fortunes: The Urban Economy of Place. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Loss, S. R., Ruiz, M. O. and Brawn, J. D. (2009). Associations between avian diversity and social, economic, and environmental characteristics of an urban landscape. Biological Conservation, 142, 2578–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luck, G. W., Smallbone, L. T. and O'Brien, R. (2009). Socio-economics and vegetation change in urban ecosystems: patterns in space and time. Ecosystems (online). DOI 10.1007/s10021–009–9244–6.CrossRef
Marcuse, P. and Kempen, R. (2002). Of States and Cities: The Partitioning of Urban Space. London and New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, C. A., Peterson, K. A. and Stabler, L. B. (2003). Residential landscaping in Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.: practices and preferences relative to covenants, codes, and restrictions. Journal of Arboriculture, 29, 9–17.Google Scholar
Martin, C. A., Warren, P. S. and Kinzig, A. P. (2004). Neighborhood socioeconomic status is a useful predictor of perennial landscape vegetation in residential neighborhoods and embedded small parks of Phoenix, AZ. Landscape and Urban Planning, 69, 355–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martine, G. (2008). The New Global Frontier: Urbanization, Poverty and Environment in the 21st Century. London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Marzluff, J. M. (2005). Island biogeography for an urbanizing world: how extinction and colonization may determine biological diversity in human-dominated landscapes. Urban Ecosystems, 8, 157–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marzluff, J. M. and Neatherlin, E. (2006). Corvid response to human settlements and campgrounds: causes, consequences, and challenges for conservation. Biological Conservation, 130, 301–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Massey, D. S. (1996). The age of extremes: concentrated affluence and poverty in the twenty-first century. Demography, 33, 395–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Massey, D. S. and Denton, N. A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
McIntyre, N. E. and Hostetler, M. E. (2001). Effects of urban land use on pollinator (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) communities in a desert metropolis. Basic and Applied Ecology, 2, 209–18.Google Scholar
McIntyre, N. E., Knowles-Yanez, K. and Hope, D. (2000). Urban ecology as an interdisciplinary field: differences in the use of ‘urban’ between the social and natural sciences. Urban Ecosystems, 4, 5–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinney, M. L. (2002). Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience, 52, 883–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melles, S. (2005). Urban bird diversity as an indicator of social diversity and economic inequality in Vancouver, British Columbia. Urban Habitats, 3, 25–48.Google Scholar
Mennis, J. (2006). Socioeconomic-vegetation relationships in urban, residential land: the case of Denver, Colorado. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 72, 911–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, J. R. (2005). Biodiversity conservation and the extinction of experience. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20, 430–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morancho, A. B. (2003). A hedonic valuation of urban green areas. Landscape and Urban Planning, 66, 35–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morneau, F., Decarie, R., Pelletier, R.et al. (1999). Changes in breeding bird richness and abundance in Montreal parks over a period of 15 years. Landscape and Urban Planning, 44, 111–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Musterd, S. (2005). Social and ethnic segregation in Europe: levels, causes, and effects. Journal of Urban Affairs, 27, 331–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,National Gardening Association (2007). The Residential Lawn and Landscape Services and the Value of Landscaping, Vol. 2009. National Gardening Association.Google Scholar
Newman, P. and Jennings, I. (2008). Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems: Principles and Practices. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Nilon, C. H. and Huckstep, S. (1998). Impacts of site disturbance on the small mammal fauna of urban woodlands. In Brueste, J., Feldmann, H. and Uhlmann, O., eds., Urban Ecology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 623–7.
O'Connor, J. (1994). Is sustainable capitalism possible? In O'Connor, M., ed., Is Capitalism Sustainable? Political Economy and the Politics of Ecology. New York: The Guildford Press.Google Scholar
O'Leary, R. and Jones, D. N. (2006). The use of supplementary foods by Australian magpies Gymnorhina tibicen: implications for wildlife feeding in suburban environments. Austral Ecology, 31, 208–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Overmyer, J. P., Noblet, R. and Armbrust, K. L. (2005). Impacts of lawn-care pesticides on aquatic ecosystems in relation to property value. Environmental Pollution, 137, 263–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palen, J. J. (2005). The Urban World. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Park, R. E. (1915). The city: suggestions for the investigation of human behavior in the city environment. American Journal of Sociology, 20, 577–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, M. J. and Meyer, J. L. (2001). Streams in the urban landscape. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32, 333–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawasarat, J. and Quinn, L. M. (2001). Exposing urban legends: the real purchasing power of central city neighborhoods. In Discussion Papers. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, p. 22.Google Scholar
Pickett, S. T. A., Cadenasso, M. L., Grove, J. M.et al. (2001). Urban ecological systems: linking terrestrial ecological, physical, and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 32, 127–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickett, S. T. A., Cadenasso, M. L., Grove, J. M.et al. (2008). Beyond urban legends: an emerging framework of urban ecology, as illustrated by the Baltimore Ecosystem Study. BioScience, 58, 139–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quillian, L. (2002). Why is black–white residential segregation so persistent? Evidence on three theories from migration data. Social Science Research, 31, 197–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rebele, F. (1994). Urban ecology and special features of urban ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, 4, 173–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robb, G. N., McDonald, R. A., Chamberlain, D. E. and Bearhop, S. (2008). Food for thought: supplementary feeding as a driver of ecological change in avian populations. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 6, 476–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenzweig, M. L. (2003). Win–Win Ecology: How the Earth's Species Can Survive in the Midst of Human Enterprise. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rudel, T. (2009). States and settlement expansion: suburban sprawl and tropical reforestation in a comparative perspective. American Journal of Sociology, 115, 129–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sadler, J. P., Small, E. C., Fiszpan, H., Telfer, M. G. and Niemelä, J. (2006). Investigating environmental variation and landscape characteristics of an urban–rural gradient using woodland carabid assemblages. Journal of Biogeography, 33, 1126–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoech, S. J., Bowman, R. and Reynolds, S. J. (2004). Food supplementation and possible mechanisms underlying early breeding in the Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens). Hormones and Behavior, 46, 565–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shochat, E., Stefanov, W. L., Whitehouse, M. E. A. and Faeth, S. H. (2004). Urbanization and spider diversity: influences of human modification of habitat structure and productivity. Ecological Applications, 14, 268–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shochat, E., Warren, P. S., Faeth, S. E., McIntyre, N. E. and Hope, D. (2006). Urban mechanistic ecology: from pattern to emerging processes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 21, 186–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sjoberg, G. (1960). The Preindustrial City: Past and Present. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Smith, M. E. (2008). Aztec City-state Capitals. Gainsville, FL: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Smith, N. (1987). Gentrification and the tent gap. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 77, 462–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, N. (1996). The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City. London and New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Smith, R. M., Gaston, K. J., Warren, P. H. and Thompson, K. (2005). Urban domestic gardens (V): relationships between landcover composition, housing and landscape. Landscape Ecology, 20, 235–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soja, E. (2000). Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Talarchek, G. M. (1990). The urban forest of New Orleans – an exploratory analysis of relationships. Urban Geography, 11, 65–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tratalos, J., Fuller, R. A., Warren, P. H., Davies, R. G. and Gaston, K. J. (2007). Urban form, biodiversity potential and ecosystem services. Landscape and Urban Planning, 83, 308–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Troy, A. and Grove, J. M. (2008). Property values, parks, and crime: a hedonic analysis in Baltimore, MD. Landscape and Urban Planning, 87, 233–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Troy, A. R., Grove, J. M., O'Neil-Dunne, J. P. M.et al. (2007). Predicting opportunities for greening and patterns of vegetation on private urban lands. Environmental Management, 40, 394–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, W. R., Nakamura, T. and Dinetti, M. (2004). Global urbanization and the separation of humans from nature. BioScience, 54, 585–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,UNCHS (Habitat) (1981). Upgrading of Urban Slums and Squatter Areas. UN Commission on Human Settlements.Google Scholar
,UNFPA (2007). State of the World Population 2007: Unleashing the Potential of Urban Growth. New York: United Nations Population Fund.Google Scholar
,US Fish and Wildlife Service (2002). 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-associated Recreation. Report of the US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, and US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.Google Scholar
,UN-HABITAT (2003). The Challenge of Slums – Global Report on Human Settlements. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Vance, J. E. (1990). The Continuing City: Urban Morphology in Western Civilization. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Wang, J., Endreny, T. A. and Nowak, D. J. (2008). Mechanistic simulation of tree effects in an urban water balance model. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 44, 75–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, P. S., Katti, M., Ermann, M. and Brazel, A. (2006). Urban bioacoustics: it's not just noise. Animal Behaviour, 71, 491–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, M. J. (2000). The Clustered World: How We Live, What We Buy, and What It All Means About Who We Are. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.Google Scholar
Whelan, S. (2004). One third of the world's urban population lives in a slum. International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI), available at http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/feb2004/slum-f17.shtmlGoogle Scholar
Whitney, G. G. and Adams, S. D. (1980). Man as a maker of new plant-communities. Journal of Applied Ecology, 17, 431–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whyte, W. F. (1943). Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. J. (1997). When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Wirth, L. (1956). The Ghetto. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Woods, M., McDonald, R. A. and Harris, S. (2003). Predation of wildlife by domestic cats Felis catus in Great Britain. Mammal Review, 33, 174–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhao, S. Q., Da, L. J., Tang, Z. Y.et al. (2006). Ecological consequences of rapid urban expansion: Shanghai, China. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 4, 341–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×