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  3. Spectroscopy for Amateur Astronomers
Publisher:
Cambridge University Press
Online publication date:
July 2017
Print publication year:
2017
Online ISBN:
9781316694435
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316694435
Subjects:
Physics and Astronomy, Practical and Amateur Astronomy
Information

Book description

This accessible guide presents the astrophysical concepts behind astronomical spectroscopy, covering both the theory and the practical elements of recording, processing, analysing and interpreting your spectra. It covers astronomical objects, such as stars, planets, nebulae, novae, supernovae, and events such as eclipses and comet passages. Suitable for anyone with only a little background knowledge and access to amateur-level equipment, the guide's many illustrations, sketches and figures will help you understand and practise this scientifically important and growing field of amateur astronomy, up to the level of Pro-Am collaborations. Accessible to non-academics, it benefits many groups from novices and learners in astronomy clubs, to advanced students and teachers of astrophysics. This volume is the perfect companion to the Spectral Atlas for Amateur Astronomers, which provides detailed commented spectral profiles of more than 100 astronomical objects.

Reviews

'Attractively produced as a working pair, these books are the products of a lifetime of familiarity with observing the spectra of cosmic objects of all kinds, conditions and states. The Atlas is in effect a modern version of the 1943 MKK Atlas, at one time a centrepiece of almost all student astronomy studies and courses. … An important development on the 1943 MKK Atlas is the addition of displays as graphs as well as images, and detailed labelling of the wavelengths of critical features. … The supporting volume Spectroscopy for Amateur Astronomers, is … a collection of notes on various aspects of both practical and theoretical spectroscopy - almost a ‘guide’ to the cosmos - and on recording and analysing what one can observe. A substantial list of references, plus tables of star names, a magnitude scale, and similar packets of useful information for the sky-watcher, are also included.'

Elizabeth Griffin Source: The Observatory

'… most professional astronomers using optical telescopes devote the majority of their observing time to spectroscopy rather than imaging. The reason is simple: spectroscopic data provide far more information about an astronomical object than an image, such as its velocity, temperature, chemical composition, and magnetic field strength. In this volume, [the authors] present a hands-on guide to spectroscopy - one that equips amateur astronomers with both the theoretical and the technical knowledge necessary to progress from imaging to spectroscopy. The text first covers the basic physics behind spectral lines formation at a level appropriate for sophomore-level atomic physics courses, using mainly high school geometry and algebra … Next follows the heart of the book, which provides readers with a guide to the optical designs of various types of spectrometers, including … information on commercially available units. Finally, the text discusses the many research opportunities open to amateurs with a small telescope and spectrometer …'

R. L. Mutel Source: Choice

'Cambridge University Press boasts a strong line of books on astronomy, and with the recent release of two books on amateur spectroscopy, the collection has grown only stronger. … If you’re looking for a new observing challenge, or know someone who is, look to CUP for help getting started in with spectroscopy. … If you’re a motivated amateur, this book will help you choose a spectrograph, guide you through your first recording, offer advice on processing the recorded spectra, and show you how to analyze it - all with amateur equipment. Pair this book with Richard Walker’s Spectral Atlas for Amateur Astronomers and you’ll have a comprehensive package on spectroscopy.'

S. N. Johnson-Roehr Source: Sky & Telescope: The Essential Guide to Astronomy

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Contents

Contents
References

References and Further Reading

Literature

[1]Walker, R., Spectral Atlas for Amateur Astronomers: A Guide to the Spectra of Astronomical Objects and Terrestrial Light Sources (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).

This atlas is supported by the present book to provide basic information, definitions and formulas.

[2]Struve, O., Zeberg, V., Astronomy of the 20th Century (New York: Macmillan, 1962).
[3]Asplund, M. et al., The Chemical Composition of the Sun (2009), available online at: https://arxiv.org/pdf/0909.0948.pdf
[4]Appenzeller, I., Introduction to Astronomical Spectroscopy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
[5]Eversberg, T., Vollmann, K., Spectroscopic Instrumentation, Fundamentals and Guidelines for Astronomers (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2015).
[6]Gray, D. F., The Observation and Analysis of Stellar Photospheres, Third Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
[7]Gray, R. O., Corbally, Ch. J., Stellar Spectral Classification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009).
[8]Gurzadyan, G. A., The Physics and Dynamics of Planetary Nebulae (Springer, 2010).
[9]Hearnshaw, J. B., The Analysis of Starlight: One Hundred and Fifty Years of Astronomical Spectroscopy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, 2014).
[10]Hearnshaw, J. B., Astronomical Spectrographs and Their History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
[11]Kaler, J. B., Stars and Their Spectra, An Introduction to the Spectral Sequence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
[12]Pradhan, A. K., Nahar, S. N., Atomic Astrophysics and Spectroscopy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
[13]Robinson, K., Spectroscopy, The Key to the Stars (New York: Springer, 2007).
[14]Rozelot, J. P., Neiner, C., The Rotation of Sun and Stars, Lecture Notes in Physics 765 (Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2009).
[15]Tonkin, S. F., Practical Amateur Spectroscopy (London: Springer, 2004).
[16]Svanberg, S., Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy, Basic Aspects and Practical Applications (Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 2012).
[17]Tennyson, J., Astronomical Spectroscopy, 2nd Edition (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co., 2011).
[18]Hergert, W., Wriedt, T., The Mie Theory, Basics and Applications (Berlin Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, 2012). (Mieplot)
[19]Osterbrock, D. E., Ferland, G. J., Astrophysics of Gaseous Nebulae and Active Galactic Nuclei, Second Edition (Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books, 2005).
[20]Neiner, C. et al., Active OB Stars: Structure, Evolution, Mass-Loss and Critical Limits, IAU Symposium 272 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
[21]Niemczura, E. et al., Determination of Atmospheric Parameters of B-, A-, F- and G-Type Stars (Springer International, 2014).
[22]Kogure, T., Leung, K.-C., The Astrophysics of Emission-Line Stars, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2007).

Internet Sources

The following publications and presentations are from various internet sources. The web addresses may change or expire with time. The corresponding PDF or html files should readily be found using a search engine, by entering of title and author.

Databases and Catalogs

[23]Lobel, A., SpectroWeb, The Interactive Database of Spectral Standard Star Atlases, Royal Observatory of Belgium. http://alobel.freeshell.org/ http://spectra.freeshell.org/SpectroWeb_news.html
[24]AAVSO, American Association of Variable Star Observers https://www.aavso.org/
[25]CDS Strasbourg: SIMBAD Astronomical Database http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/
[26]NASA Extragalactic Database (NED) http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/

Stellar Magnetic Fields

[28]Degl’Innocenti, E. Landi, On The Effective Landé Factor of Magnetic Lines, Solar Physics, 77, 1–2, (1980), 285–9, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1982SoPh…77..285L
[29]Mathys, G. et al., The Mean Magnetic Field Modulus of Ap Stars, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 123, 2, (1996), 353–402, available online at: http://aas.aanda.org/articles/aas/abs/1997/08/ds1257/ds1257.html
[30]Reiners, A., Magnetic Fields in Low-Mass Stars: An Overview of Observational Biases (2014), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1310.5820v1.pdf

Emission Nebulae

[31]Gieseking, F. Planetarische Nebel, six-part article series, in “Sterne und Weltraum,” 1983
[32]Schmoll, J., AIP: 3D Spektrofotometrie Extragalaktischer Emissionslinienobjekte, PhD Thesis, University of Potsdam (2001), available online at: http://www.aip.de/groups/publications/schmoll.pdf

Processing Calibration and Normalization of Spectral Profiles

[33]Aldering, G., SN Factory Spectrophotometry Requirements Document (2000), available online at: http://snfactory.lbl.gov/snf/ps/flux_calib.ps
[34]ESO/UVES: Uves Quality Control: Flux Calibration, Response Curves, available online at: http://www.eso.org/observing/dfo/quality/UVES/pipeline/response.html
[35]Stubbs, W. et al., Addressing the Photometric Calibration Challenge: Explicit Determination of the Instrumental Response and Atmospheric Response Functions, and Tying it All Together (2012), eprint arXiv:1206.6695, available online at: http://arxiv.org/abs/1206.6695
[36]Stubbs, W. et al., Toward 1% Photometry: End-to-end Calibration of Astronomical Telescopes and Detectors (2006), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0604285v1.pdf
[37]Valenti, J., SISD Training Lectures in Spectroscopy: Anatomy of a Spectrum (STSCI) available online at: http://www.stsci.edu/hst/training/events/Spectroscopy/Spec02Nov09.pdf

Radial Velocity

[38]Chubak, C. et al., Precise Radial Velocities of 2046 Nearby FGKM Stars and 131 Standards (2012), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1207.6212v2.pdf

Rotational Velocity

[39]Fekel, F., Rotational Velocities of B, A, and Early-F Narrow-lined Stars (2003), available online at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/376393
[40]Fekel, F., Rotational Velocities of Late Type Stars (1997), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1997PASP..109..514F
[41]Hanuschik, R. W., Stellar V sin i and Optical Emission Line Widths in Be Stars (1989), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1989Ap%26SS.161…61H
[42]Moskovitz, N. A. et al., Characterizing the Rotational Evolution of Low Mass Stars: Implications for the Li-rich K-giants (2009), available online at: http://eo.nso.edu/sites/eo.nso.edu/files/files/ires/IRES_2007/Moskovitz_TechRpt.pdf
[43]Slettebak, A., Determination of Stellar Rotational Velocities (1985), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1985IAUS..111..163S/0000164.000.html
[44]Trypsteen, M., Determination of Planetary Rotations with BASS, Vspec and ESO-MIDAS, Guidestar Magazine, 9, (2015), 22–9, available online at: https://issuu.com/guidestar/docs

P Cygni Profiles

[45]Hogerheijde, M., Radiative Processes, Appendix E, Extra Problem Set, (Leiden Observatory), available online at: http://home.strw.leidenuniv.nl/~michiel/ismclass_files/radproc07/extra_problem_set_3.pdf

Measurement of Temperature

[46]Biazzo, K. et al., Effective Temperature vs Line-Depth Ratio for ELODIE Spectra, Gravity and Rotational Velocity Effects (2007), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/0704.1456v1.pdf
[47]Catalano, S., et al., Measuring Starspot Temperature from Line Depth Ratios, Part I (2002), available online at: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2002/42/aa2543.pdf
[48]Catalano, S. et al., Measuring Starspot Temperature from Line Depth Ratios, Part II (2004), available online at: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2005/11/aa1373.pdf

Spectroscopic Binary Systems

[49]Reimann, H.-G., Kompendium für das Astronomische Praktikum, Spektroskopische Doppelsterne, Lecture University Jena, (in German), available online at: http://www.astro.uni-jena.de/Teaching/Praktikum/pra2002/node156.html

Balmer Decrement and Interstellar Extinction

[50]Acker, A. Spectrometry of Nebulae, University of Strasbourg (2011), available online at: http://gawws.u-strasbg.fr/Stuff/Acker.pdf
[51]Arenou, F. et al., A Three-Dimensional Galactic Extinction Model, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 258, 1, (1992), 104-11, available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992A%26A…258..104A
[52]Brocklehurst, M., Calculations of Level Populations for the Low Levels of Hydrogenic Ions in Gaseous Nebulae, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 153, (1971), 471–90, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1971MNRAS.153..471B
[53]Reynolds, C. S. et al., A Multiwavelength Study of the Seyfert 1 Galaxy MCG-6–30, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 2911, (1997), 403, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997MNRAS.291..403R

Fluorescence Processes Emission Nebulae

[54]Gail, H. P., Konstruktion eines einfachen Modellprogramms für die Struktur eines Gasnebels (2006), University of Heidelberg (in German), available online at: www.ita.uni-heidelberg.de/~gail/hiiprog.ps

Spectrographic Measurement of Distances by Absolute Magnitudes

[55]Pace, G. et al., The Wilson–Bappu Effect: A Tool to Determine Stellar Distances, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 401, (2003), 997–1007, available online at: http://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2003/15/aah3836.pdf
[56]Walker, G. A., Millward, Ch. G., A Convincing Mv-W(Hγ) Calibration for A and B Supergiants, Astrophysical Journal, 289, (1985), 669–75, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985ApJ…289..669W

Spectrographic Measurement of Surface Gravity

[57]Park, S. et al., Wilson–Bappu Effect: Extended to Surface Gravity (2013), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1307.0592v1.pdf

Spectrographs

[58]DADOS and BACHES Spectrographs, Baader Planetarium: http://www.baader-planetarium.de
[59]Shelyak Instruments: ALPY, Lhires III, LISA and eShel http://www.shelyak.com/
[60]SQUES Echelle Spectrograph, Eagleowloptics Switzerland http://www.eagleowloptics.com/
[62]Rainbow Optics Star Spectroscope, www.starspectroscope.com
[63]Star Analyser, Paton Hawksley Education Ltd (PHEL) www.patonhawksley.co.uk
[65]Minispec, Astro Spectroscopy Instruments EU, http://www.astro-spec.com/de
[67]Trypsteen, M., The Spectra-L200, part 1: The Ultimate Spectrograph, Guidestar Magazine, 9, (2014), 76–81; The Spectra-L200, part 2: In Practice, Guidestar Magazine, 10, (2014), 40–5, available online at: https://issuu.com/guidestar/docs
[68]Starlight Xpress SX, Starlight Xpress Ltd, UK, www.sxccd.com

Spectrographic Software

[70]IRAF, NOAO, http://iraf.noao.edu
[71]IRIS and ISIS: Webpage of Christian Buil http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/
[72]RSpec: Webpage of Tom Field http://www.rspec-astro.com/
[73]SpectroTools: Freeware Program by P. Schlatter http://www.peterschlatter.ch/SpectroTools/
[74]Visual Spec “Vspec”: Webpage of Valerie Désnoux http://astrosurf.com/vdesnoux/
[75]SimSpec, Spectrograph Exposure Time Calculators (ETC) by Christian Buil http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/us/compute/compute.htm
[77]Trypsteen, M., Astrospectroscopy@Cyberspace, Guidestar Magazine, 1, (2015), 80–4, available online at: https://issuu.com/guidestar/docs

Gratings

[79]Richardson Gratings, Newport Corporation http://www.gratinglab.com/Home.aspx
[80]Thorlabs Inc https://www.thorlabs.com/

Optical Design of Spectrographs

[81]Schroeder, D. J., Hilliard, R. L., Echelle efficiencies: Theory and Experiment, Applied Optics, (1980), available online at: https://www.osapublishing.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-19-16-2833
[82]Stanishev, V., Correcting Second-Order Contamination in Low-Resolution Spectra (2007), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/0705.3441v1.pdf
[83]Barnes, S., The Design and Performance of High Resolution Echelle Spectrographs in Astronomy, (University of Canterbury, NZ, 2004), available online at: http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/5576
[84]Cowley, L., Atmospheric Optics website available online at: http://www.atoptics.co.uk/

Pro–Am Collaboration

[85]Leadbeater, Ch., Miller, P., The Pro–Am Revolution, Demos (2004), available online at: http://libweb.surrey.ac.uk/library/skills/Public%20understanding%20of%20science/promo_1.pdf
[86]ARAS, Astronomical Ring for Access to Spectroscopy http://www.astrosurf.com/aras/
[87]The Convento Group http://www.stsci.de/convento/
[88]Fahed, R. et al., The WR 140 Periastron Passage 2009: First Results from MONS and Other Optical Sources, eprint arXiv:1101.1430, available online at: http://arxiv.org/abs/1101.1430
[89]Hattenbach, J., Deciphering Starlight, Sky & Telescope, Sept., (2013), available online at: http://de.scribd.com/doc/162786805/Sky-Telescope-September-2013-Gnv64#scribd
[90]Boyd, D., Pro-Am Collaboration in Astronomy: Past, Present and Future, Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 121, 2, (2011), 73-90, available online at http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2011JBAA..121…73B
[91]Torres, J. R., On the Prediction of Visibility for Deep-Sky Objects, Pleiades, 1, 1, (2000), 2, available online at: http://www.uv.es/jrtorres/visib.pdf
[92]Dachs, J., Hanuschik, R. et al., Geometry of Rotating Envelopes around Be Stars Derived from Comparative Analysis of H-alpha Emission Line Profiles, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 159, 1–2, (1986), 276–90, available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1986A%26A…159..276D/0000280.000.html
[93]Stefl, S. et al., V/R Variations of Binary Be Stars, Active OB-Stars: Laboratories for Stellar and Circumstellar Physics, ASP Conference Series, 361, (2007), 274, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2007ASPC..361..274S
[94]Huang, S. S., Profiles of Emission Lines in Be Stars, Astrophysical Journal, 171, (1972), 549, available online at: http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/abs/1972ApJ…171..549H

Further Reading

[95]Harrison, K. M., Astronomical Spectroscopy for Amateurs (New York: Springer, 2011).
[96]Kitchin, C. R., Optical Astronomical Spectroscopy (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 1995).
[97]Rozelot, J. P., Neiner, C., Astronomical Spectrography for Amateurs, EAS Publication Series, Volume 47 (2011).
[98]Seitter, W. C., Atlas für Objektiv Prismen Spektren: Bonner Spektralatlas (Astronomical Institute Bonn, 1975), out of print but available online at: http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=bonner%20atlas
[99]Warner, B. D., A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis (New York: Springer, 2006).
[100]Geiger, H., Scheel, K., Geschichte der Physik Vorlesungstechnik, (Springer, 1926).
[101]Dyson, J. E., Williams, D. A., The Physics of the Interstellar Medium (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980).
[102]Morrison, J. C., Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers, second edition (Elsevier Academic Press, 2015).
[103]Griffiths, D. J., Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, second edition (Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005; Cambridge University Press, 2016).
[104]Collins, G. W., The Fundamentals of Stellar Astrophysics (2003) available online at http://ads.harvard.edu/books/1989fsa..book/
[105]Palmer, Chr., Loewen, E., Diffraction Grating Handbook (Newport Corporation, 2005).
[106]Jacoby, G. H. et al., A Library of Stellar Spectra (1984), available online at: http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?III/92.
[107]Kaler, J., STARS, Information about stars and constellations available online at: http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sowlist.html
[108]MILES Spectral Library, containing ~1000 spectra of reference stars http://miles.iac.es/pages/stellar-libraries/miles-library.php
[109]Pickles, A. J., A Stellar Spectral Flux Library, 1150–25000 Å, The Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 110, 749, (1998), 863–78, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998PASP..110..863P
[110]The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Edn. Data Access by Alcyone Software: http://www.alcyone.de/search_in_bsc.html
[111]The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/index.html
[112]Ansgar, R., Observations of Cool-Star Magnetic Fields (2012), http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrsp-2012–1/download/lrsp-2012–1Color.pdf
[113]Babcock, H. W., The 34-kilogauss Magnetic Field of HD 215441, Astrophysical Journal, 132, (1960), 521, available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1960ApJ…132..521B
[114]Borra, F., Landstreet, J. D., The Magnetic Field Geometry of HD215441 (1977), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1978ApJ…222..226B
[115]Elkin, V. G. et al., A Rival for Babcock’s Star: The Extreme 30-kG Variable Magnetic Field in the Ap Star HD75049 (2009), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/0908.0849v2.pdf
[116]Landstreet, J. D., The Measurement of Magnetic Fields in Stars (1979), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1980AJ.....85..611L
[117]Mathys, G., Ap Stars with Resolved Zeeman Split Lines (1990), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990A%26A…232..151M
[118]Mathys, G., Lanz, T., Ap Stars with Resolved Magnetically Split Lines (1991), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992A%26A…256..169M
[119]Aufdenberg, J. P. et al., The Nature of the Na I D-lines in the Red Rectangle (2011), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1107.4961.pdf
[120]Brown, M. E. et al., A High Resolution Catalogue of Cometary Emission Lines (1996), available online at: http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/comet/echelle.html
[121]Danziger, I. J. et al., Optical and Radio Studies of SNR in the Local Group Galaxy M33 (1980), available online at: http://www.eso.org/sci/publications/messenger/archive/no.21-sep80/messenger-no21-7-11.pdf
[122]Danziger, I. J. et al., Optical Spectra of Supernova Remnants (1975), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976PASP…88…44D
[123]Davidson, K., Emission-line Spectra of Condensations in the Crab Nebula (1979), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979ApJ…228..179D
[124]Glinski, R. J. et al., On the Red Rectangle Optical Emission Bands (2002), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2002MNRAS.332L..17G
[125]Gurzadyan, G. A., Excitation Class of Nebulae: an Evolution Criterion? (1990), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991Ap%26SS.181…73G
[126]Kaler, J., The Planetary Nebulae, available online at: http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/pn.html
[127]Morgan, L. A., The Emission Line Spectrum of the Orion Nebula, (1971), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1971MNRAS.153..393M&defaultprint=YES&filetype=.pdf
[128]Reid, W. A. et al., An Evaluation of the Excitation Parameter for the Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae (2010), available online at: http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0911/0911.3689v2.pdf
[129]Thomas, J. D., Spectroscopic Analysis and Modeling of the Red Rectangle, PhD thesis University of Toledo, (2012), available online at: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap/10?0::NO:10:P10_ACCESSION_NUM:toledo1341345222
[130]Varshni, Y. P. et al., Emission Lines Identified in Planetary Nebulae (2006), available online at: http://laserstars.org/ http://laserstars.org/data/nebula/identification.html
[131]Walsh, J. R. et al., Complex Ionized Structure in the Theta-2 Orionis Region, (1981), available online at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1982MNRAS.201..561W
[132]Wehres, N. et al., C2 Emission Features in the Red Rectangle, (2010), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010A%26A…518A..36W
[133]Williams College, USA: Gallery of Planetary Nebula Spectra, available online at: http://www.williams.edu/astronomy/research/PN/nebulae/ http://www.williams.edu/astronomy/research/PN/nebulae/legend.php
[134]Burke, D. L. et al., Precision Determination of Atmospheric Extinction at Optical and Near Infrared Wavelengths (2010) available online at: http://iopscience.iop.org/0004–637X/720/1/811
[135]Colina, L. et al., Absolute Flux Calibrated Spectrum of Vega (1996), available online at: http://www.stsci.edu/instruments/observatory/PDF/scs8.rev.pdf
[136]ESO RA Ordered List of Spectrophotometric Standards, http://www.eso.org/sci/observing/tools/standards/spectra/stanlis.html
[137]Rakovský, J. et al., Measurement of Echelle Spectrometer Spectral Response in UV (2011), available online at: http://www.mff.cuni.cz/veda/konference/wds/proc/pdf11/WDS11_245_f2_Rakovsky.pdf
[138]Schmid, H., Lecture ETHZ, Astronomical Observations Chapter 7: Spectroscopy, available online at: http://www.phys.ethz.ch/~hanschmi/AstObs2012/astobs7.pdf
[139]Skoda, P., Common Methods of Stellar Spectral Analysis and their Support in VO (2011), available online at: http://arxiv.org/abs/1112.2787
[140]Stubbs, W. et al., Towards More Precise Survey Photometry for PanSTARRS and LSST: Measuring Directly the Optical Transmission Spectrum of the Atmosphere (2007), available online at: http://arxiv.org/pdf/0708.1364.pdf
[141]Kurucz, R. L. et al., The Rotational Velocity and Barium Abundance of Sirius (1977), available online at: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1977ApJ…217..771K
[142]Royer, F., Determination of v sin i with Fourier Transform Techniques (2005), available online at: http://sait.oat.ts.astro.it/MSAIS/8/PDF/124.pdf
[143]Takeda, Y. et al., Rotational Feature of Vega and its Impact on Abundance Determinations (2007), available online at: http://www.ta3.sk/caosp/Eedition/FullTexts/vol38no2/pp157–162.pdf
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