Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-28T14:30:00.939Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Questions in Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2020

Lucas Payne Butler
Affiliation:
University of Maryland, College Park
Samuel Ronfard
Affiliation:
University of Toronto Mississauga
Kathleen H. Corriveau
Affiliation:
Boston University
Get access

Summary

Everyone will likely acknowledge that attitudes such as curiosity and interest are vitally important for learning, and that young children ask so many questions because they are intensely curious and interested in the world around them. But the nature of these questioning attitudes themselves is poorly understood. Indeed, many have a mistaken view of them – or so I will claim. In consequence, many are led to give mistaken accounts of the cognitive processes that underlie children’s asking and answering of questions, too. This matters, both for our understanding of childhood development generally and for designing interventions that are intended to help children learn. This chapter has two main goals. One is to offer a fresh set of conceptual resources for those wanting to understand childhood development – specifically, the likely existence from infancy of a set of first–order, non–metacognitive, questioning attitudes. The second is to suggest that the early question–asking and question–answering behavior of infants and toddlers is best understood as expressive of such attitudes, rather than providing evidence of early metacognition.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Questioning Child
Insights from Psychology and Education
, pp. 6 - 28
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Baillargeon, R., Spelke, E., and Wasserman, S. (1985). Object permanence in five-month-old infants. Cognition, 20, 191208. http://doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90008-3Google Scholar
Baillargeon, R., Scott, R., and He, Z. (2010). False-belief understanding in infants. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 110–18. http://doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.006Google Scholar
Balcomb, F., and Gerken, L. (2008). Three-year-old children can access their own memory to guide responses on a visual matching task. Developmental Science, 11, 750–60. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00725.xGoogle Scholar
Begus, K., and Southgate, V. (2012). Infant pointing serves an interrogative function. Developmental Science, 15, 611–17. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01160.xGoogle Scholar
Begus, K., and Southgate, V. (2018). Curious learners: How infants’ motivation to learn shapes and is shaped by infants’ interactions with the social world. In Saylor, M. and Ganea, P. (eds.), Active Learning from Infancy to Childhood (pp. 1337). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. http://doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77182-3_2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begus, K., Gliga, T., and Southgate, V. (2016). Infants’ preferences for native speakers are associated with an expectation of information. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 12397–402. http://doi:10.1073/pnas.1603261113Google Scholar
Bermúdez, J. (2003). Thinking without Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchard, T., Hayden, B., and Bromberg-Martin, E. (2015). Orbitofrontal cortex uses distinct codes for different choice attributes in decisions motivated by curiosity. Neuron, 85, 602–14. http://doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloom, L., Rispoli, M., Gartner, B., and Hafitz, J. (1989). Acquisition of complementation. Journal of Child Language, 16, 101–20. http://doi:10.1017/s0305000900013465Google Scholar
Bloom, P. (2002). How Children Learn the Meanings of Words. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Bromberg-Martin, E., and Hikosaka, O. (2009). Midbrain dopamine neurons signal preference for advance information about upcoming rewards. Neuron, 63, 119–26. http://doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buttelmann, D., Carpenter, M., and Tomasello, M. (2009). Eighteen-month-old infants show false belief understanding in an active helping paradigm. Cognition, 112, 337–42. http://doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.05.006Google Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2009). Invertebrate concepts confront the generality constraint (and win). In Lurz, R. (ed.), The Philosophy of Animal Minds (pp. 89107), New York: Cambridge University Press. http://doi:10.1017/cbo9780511819001.006Google Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2011). The Opacity of Mind: An Integrative Theory of Self-Knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2013). Mindreading in infancy. Mind & Language, 28, 141–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2016). Two systems for mindreading? Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 7, 141–62. http://doi:10.1111/mila.12014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruthers, P. (2018). Basic questions. Mind & Language, 33, 130–47. http://doi:10.1111/mila.12167Google Scholar
Chouinard, M. (2007). Children’s questions: A mechanism for cognitive development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 72, no.1, 1129.Google ScholarPubMed
Delton, A. and Sell, A. (2014). The co-evolution of concepts and motivation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 115–20. http://doi:10.1177/0963721414521631CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Destan, N., Hembacher, E., Ghetti, S., and Roebers, C. (2014). Early metacognitive abilities: The interplay of monitoring and control processes in 5- to 7-year-old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126, 213–28. http://doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.04.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diessel, H., and Tomasello, M. (2001). The acquisition of finite complement clauses in English: A corpus-based analysis. Cognitive Linguistics, 12, 97141. http://doi:10.1515/cogl.12.2.97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dudley, R. (2018). Young children’s conception of knowledge. Philosophy Compass. Advance online publication. http://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12494Google Scholar
Dudley, R., Orita, N., Hacquard, V., and Lidz, J. (2015). Three-year-olds’ understanding of know and think. In Schwarz, F. (ed.), Experimental Perspectives on Presuppositions (pp. 241–62), Cham, Switzerland: Springer. http://doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07980-6_11Google Scholar
Dufau, S., Grainger, J., and Ziegler, J. (2012). How to say “no” to a nonword: A leaky competing accumulator model of lexical decision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 1117–28. http://doi:10.1037/a0026948Google Scholar
Dunlosky, J., and Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. New York: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906Google Scholar
Foley, R. (1987). The Theory of Epistemic Rationality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, J. (2013). Question-directed attitudes. Philosophical Perspectives, 27, 145–74. http://doi:10.1111/phpe.12026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghetti, S., Hembacher, E., and Coughlin, C. (2013). Feeling uncertain and acting on it during the preschool years: A metacognitive approach. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 160–5. http://doi:10.1111/cdep.12035CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gipson, C. D., Alessandri, J. J., Miller, H. C., and Zentall, T. R. (2009). Preference for 50% reinforcement over 75% reinforcement by pigeons. Learning & Behavior, 37(4), 289–98.Google Scholar
Goldman, A. (1999). Knowledge in a Social World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, A. (2006). Simulating Minds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goupil, L., Romand-Monnier, M., and Kouider, S. (2016). Infants ask for help when they know they don’t know. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 3492–6. http://doi:10.1073/pnas.1515129113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruber, M., Gelman, B., and Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84, 486–96. http://doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.060CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hacquard, V. (2014). Bootstrapping attitudes. Proceedings of SALT, 24, 330–52. http://doi:10.3765/salt.v24i0.2434Google Scholar
Harris, P. L. (2012). Trusting What You’re Told: How Children Learn from Others. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, P. L., Ronfard, S., and Bartz, D. (2017a). Young children’s developing conception of knowledge and ignorance: Work in progress. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14, 221–32. http://doi:10.1080/17405629.2016.1190267Google Scholar
Harris, P. L., Yang, B., and Cui, Y. (2017b). “I don’t know”: Children’s early talk about knowledge. Mind & Language, 32, 283307. http://doi:10.1111/mila.12143Google Scholar
Karttunen, L. (1977). Syntax and semantics of questions. Linguistics and Philosophy, 1, 344. http://doi:10.1007/978-94-009-9509-3_6Google Scholar
Kidd, C., and Hayden, B. (2015). The psychology and neuroscience of curiosity. Neuron, 88, 449–60. http://doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.010Google Scholar
Kishimoto, T., Shizawa, Y., Yasuda, J., Hinobayashi, T., and Minami, T. (2007). Do pointing gestures by infants provoke comments from adults? Infant Behavior & Development, 30, 562–7. http://doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.04.001Google Scholar
Kovács, Á. (2016). Belief files in theory of mind reasoning. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 7, 509–27. http://doi:10.1007/s13164-015-0236-5Google Scholar
Kovács, Á., Tauzin, T., Téglás, E., Gergely, G., and Csibra, G. (2014). Pointing as epistemic request: 12-month-olds point to receive new information. Infancy, 19, 543–57. http://doi:10.1111/infa.12060Google Scholar
Levelt, W. (1989). Speaking: From Intention to Articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, S., Hacquard, V., and Lidz, J. (2012). The semantics and pragmatics of belief reports in preschoolers. Proceedings of SALT, 22, 247–67.Google Scholar
Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., and Tomasello, M. (2007). Pointing out new news, old news, and absent referents at 12 months of age. Developmental Science, 10, F1F7. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00552.xGoogle Scholar
Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., and Tomasello, M. (2008). Twelve-month-olds communicate helpfully and appropriately for knowledgeable and ignorant partners. Cognition, 108, 732–9. http://doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.06.013Google Scholar
Litman, J. (2005). Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 793814. http://doi:10.1080/02699930541000101CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lockl, K., and Schneider, W. (2007). Knowledge about the mind: Links between theory of mind and later metamemory. Child Development, 78, 148167. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00990.xGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 7598. http://doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75Google Scholar
Lucca, K., and Wilbourn, M. (2016). Communicating to learn: Infants’ pointing gestures result in optimal learning. Child Development, 89, 941960. http://doi:10.1111/cdev.12707CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons, K., and Ghetti, S. (2013). I don’t want to pick! Introspection on uncertainty supports early strategic behavior. Child Development, 84, 726736. http://doi:10.1111/cdev.12004Google Scholar
Mills, C., Legare, C., Bills, M., and Mejias, C. (2010). Preschoolers use questions as a tool to acquire knowledge from different sources. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11, 533560. http://doi:10.1080/15248372.2010.516419Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O., and Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In Bower, G. H. (ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (pp. 125–73). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Onishi, K., and Baillargeon, R. (2005). Do 15-month-olds understand false beliefs? Science, 308, 255258. http://doi:10.1126/science.1107621CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, C., and Barron, A. (2013). Honey bees selectively avoid difficult choices. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 1915519159. http://doi:10.1073/pnas.1314571110Google Scholar
Shatz, M., Wellman, H., and Silber, S. (1983). The acquisition of mental verbs: A systematic investigation of the first reference to mental state. Cognition, 14, 301321. http://doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90008-2Google Scholar
Simons, M. (2007). Observations on embedding verbs, evidentiality, and presupposition. Lingua, 117, 10341056. http://doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2006.05.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southgate, V., and Vernetti, A. (2014). Belief-based action prediction in preverbal infants. Cognition, 130, 110. http://doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.08.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Southgate, V., Senju, A., and Csibra, G. (2007). Action anticipation through attribution of false belief by 2-year-olds. Psychological Science, 18, 587592. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01944.xGoogle Scholar
Southgate, V., van Maanen, C., and Csibra, G. (2010). Infant pointing: Communication to cooperate or communication to learn. Child Development, 78, 735740. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01028.xGoogle Scholar
Spelke, E., and Kinzler, K. (2007). Core knowledge. Developmental Science, 10, 8996. http://doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00569.xGoogle Scholar
Stahl, A., and Feigenson, L. (2015). Observing the unexpected enhances infants’ learning and exploration. Science, 348, 9194. http://doi:10.1126/science.aaa3799Google Scholar
Usher, M., and McClelland, J. (2001). The time course of perceptual choice: The leaky, competing accumulator model. Psychological Review, 108, 550592. http://doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.550Google Scholar
Westra, E. (2016). Pragmatic development and false belief task. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 8, 235257. http://doi:10.1007/s13164-016-0320-5Google Scholar
Whitcomb, D. (2010). Curiosity was framed. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 81, 664–87. http://doi:10.1111/j.1933-1592.2010.00394.xGoogle Scholar
Williamson, T. (2000). Knowledge and Its Limits. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Woodward, A. (1998). Infants selectively encode the goal object of an actor’s reach. Cognition, 69, 134. http://doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(98)00058-4Google Scholar
Wu, Z., and Gros-Louis, J. (2014). Caregivers provide more labeling responses to infants’ pointing than to infants’ object-directed vocalizations. Journal of Child Language, 42, 124. http://doi:10.1017/s0305000914000221Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×