Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T17:16:39.706Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

6 - Trauma

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 March 2023

By
Gerald M. Rosen ,
Henry Otgaar  and
Harald Merckelbach
Edited by
Stephen Hupp  and
Cara L. Santa Maria
Stephen Hupp
Affiliation:
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
Cara L. Santa Maria
Affiliation:
Fielding Graduate University, California
Get access

Summary

This chapter describes pseudoscience and questionable ideas related to posttraumatic stress disorder. The chapter opens by discussing controversies such as diagnostic validity. Dubious treatments include critical incident stress debriefing, recovered memory techniques, energy tapping therapies, and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). The chapter closes by reviewing research-supported approaches.

Keywords

critical incident stress debriefingrecovered memory techniquesenergy tapping therapieseye movement desensitization and reprocessingpurple hat therapyvanity credentialsexposure-based methodscognitive restructuringimagery rescriptingbehavioral activation
Type
Chapter
Information
Pseudoscience in Therapy
A Skeptical Field Guide
 , pp. 69 - 93
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress (AAETS) (2021). www.aaets.org.Google Scholar
American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law (2005). Ethics guidelines for the practice of forensic psychiatry. www.aapl.org/ethics.htm.Google Scholar
American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs (2008). Report on memories of childhood abuse: American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 43, 114–117.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (3rd ed.). Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (5th ed.). Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (5th ed., text revision). Author.Google Scholar
American Psychological Association (1998). Final conclusions of the American Psychological Association working group on investigation of memories of child abuse. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 933–940.Google Scholar
American Psychology–Law Society: Division 41 of the American Psychological Association (2013). Specialty guidelines for forensic psychology. American Psychologist, 68, 7–19.Google Scholar
Armour, C., Fried, E. I., & Olff, M. (2017). PTSD symptomics: Network analyses in the field of psychotraumatology. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(suppl 3), 1398003. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2017.1398003.Google Scholar
Association of Traumatic Stress Specialists (2021). www.aaets.org.Google Scholar
Barden, R. C. (2016). Memory and reliability: Developments and controversial issues. In Radcliffe, P., Heaton-Armstrong, A., Gudjonsson, G., & Wolchover, D. (Eds.), Witness testimony in sex cases (pp. 343–359). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Barrowcliff, A. L., Gray, N. S., Freeman, T. C .A., & MacCullock, M. J. (2004). Eye movements reduce the vividness, emotional valence and electrodermal arousal associated with negative autobiographical memories. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 15, 325–345.Google Scholar
Bodkin, J. A., Pope, H. G., Detke, M. J., & Hudson, J. I. (2007). Is PTSD caused by traumatic stress? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 176–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowman, M. L., & Yehuda, R. (2004). Risk factors and the adversity-stress model. In Rosen, G. M. (Ed.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies (pp. 39–61). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Brand, B. L., Dalenberg, C. J., Frewen, P. A., Loewenstein, R. J., Schielke, H. J., Brams, J. S., & Spiegel, D. (2018). Trauma-related dissociation is no fantasy: Addressing the errors of omission and commission in Merckelbach and Patihis (2018). Psychological Injury and Law, 11, 377–393.Google Scholar
Breslau, N., & Davis, G. C. (1987). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The stressor criterion. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 175, 255–264.Google Scholar
Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Peterson, E. L., & Schultz, L. R. (2000). A second look at comorbidity in victims of trauma: The posttraumatic stress disorder-major depression connection. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 902–909.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748–766.Google Scholar
Broman-Fulks, J. J., Ruggiero, K. J., Green, B. A., Kilpatrick, D. G., Danielson, C. K., Resnick, H. S., & Saunders, B. E. (2007). Taxometric investigation of PTSD: Data from two nationally representative samples. Behavior Therapy, 37, 364–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, D., Scheflin, A. W., & Whitfield, C. L. (1999). Recovered memories: The current weight of the evidence in science and in the courts. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 27, 5–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, R. A. (2010). Treating the full range of posttraumatic reactions. In Rosen, G. M. & Frueh, B. C. (Eds.), Clinician’s guide to posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 205–234). Wiley.Google Scholar
Callahan, R. J. (1985). Five minute phobia cure: Dr. Callahan’s treatment for fears, phobias and self-sabotage. Enterprise Publishing, Inc.Google Scholar
Carey, B. (2019, July 11). Francine Shapiro, Developer of Eye Movement Therapy, dies at 71. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2019/07/11/science/francine-shapiro-dead.html.Google Scholar
Carlier, I. V. E., Voerman, A. E., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2000). The influence of occupational debriefing on post-traumatic stress symptomatology in traumatized police officers. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 87–98.Google Scholar
Castonguay, L. G., & Beutler, L. E. (Eds.) (2006). Principles of therapeutic change that work. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chambless, D. L., &Hollon, S. D. (1998). Defining empirically supported therapies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 7–18.Google Scholar
Chambless, D. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2001). Empirically supported psychological interventions: Controversies and evidence. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 685–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Church, D., Stapleton, P., Kip, K., & Gallo, F. (2020). Corrigendum to: Is tapping on acupuncture points an active ingredient in Emotional Freedom Techniques: A systematic review and meta-analysis of comparative studies. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 208, 632–635.Google Scholar
Church, D., Stapleton, P., Yang, A., & Gallo, F. (2018). Is tapping on acupuncture points an active ingredient in Emotional Freedom Techniques? A systematic review and meta-analysis of comparative studies. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 206, 783–793.Google Scholar
Craig, G., & Fowlie, A. (1995). Emotional freedom techniques: The manual. Authors.Google Scholar
Crews, F. (1995). The memory wars: Freud’s legacy in dispute. New York Review of Books.Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P., Smit, F., Bohlmeijer, E., Hollon, S. D., & Andersson, G. (2010). Efficacy of cognitive–behavioural therapy and other psychological treatments for adult depression: Meta-analytic study of publication bias. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196, 173–178.Google Scholar
Cuijpers, P., van Veen, S. C., Sijbrandij, M., Yoder, W., & Cristea, I. A. (2020). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for mental health problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 49, 165–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawes, R. M. (1994). House of cards: Psychology and psychotherapy built on myth. The Free Press.Google Scholar
Decker, H. S. (2013). The making of DSM-III: A diagnostic manual’s conquest of American psychiatry. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Devilly, G. J. (2005). Power therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 39, 437–445.Google Scholar
deVoogd, L. D., & Phelps, E. A. (2020). A cognitively demanding working-memory intervention enhances extinction. Scientific Reports, 10, 7020. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63811-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dineen, T. (1996). Manufacturing victims: What the psychology industry is doing to people. Robert Davies Publishing.Google Scholar
Dodier, O., Patihis, L., & Payoux, M. (2019). Reports of recovered memories of childhood abuse in therapy in France. Memory, 27, 1283–1298.Google Scholar
Dreman, S. (1991). Coping with the trauma of divorce. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 113–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekman, P., & O’Sullivan, M. (1991). Who can catch a liar? American Psychologist, 46, 913–920.Google Scholar
Eldridge, G. (1991). Contextual issues in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 7–23.Google Scholar
Erwin, B. A., Heimberg, R. G., Marx, B. P., & Franklin, M. E. (2006). Traumatic and socially stressful life events among persons with social anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 896–914.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everly, G. S.Jr., & Mitchell, J. T. (1999). Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM): A new era and standard of care in crisis intervention. 2nd ed. Chevron.Google Scholar
Forbes, D., Haslam, N., Williams, B. J., & Creamer, M. (2005). Testing the latent structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: A taxometric study of combat veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 647–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, E. I., van Borkulo, C. D., Cramer, A. O. J., Boschloo, L., Schoevers, R. A., & Borsboom, D. (2017). Mental disorders as networks of problems: A review of recent insights. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frueh, B. C., Elhai, J.D., Grubaugh, A. L., Monnier, J., Kashdan, T. B., Sauvageot, J. A., Hamner, M. B., Burkett, B. G., & Arana, G. (2005). Documented combat exposure of U.S. veterans seeking treatment for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 467–472.Google Scholar
Galatzer-Levy, I. R., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). 636,120 ways to have posttraumatic stress disorder. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 8, 651–62.Google Scholar
Gangestad, S., & Snyder, M. (1985). “To carve nature at its joints”: On the existence of discrete classes of personality. Psychological Review, 92, 317–349.Google Scholar
Gaudiano, B. A., & Herbert, J. D. (2000). Can we really tap our problems away? A critical analysis of Thought Field Therapy. Skeptical Inquirer, 24, 29–33.Google Scholar
Gist, R., & Devilly, G. J. (2010). Early intervention in the aftermath of trauma. In Rosen, G. R. & Frueh, B. C. (Eds.), Clinician’s guide to posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 153–176). Wiley.Google Scholar
Goddard, J., & de Shazo, R. (2012). Psychological effects of bed bug attacks (Cimex lectularius L.). American Journal of Medicine, 125, 101–103.Google Scholar
Greenberg, S. A., & Shuman, D. W. (1997). Irreconcilable conflict between therapist and forensic roles. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 28, 50–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haslam, N. (2016). Concept creep: Psychology’s expanding concepts of harm and pathology. Psychological Inquiry, 27, 1–17.Google Scholar
Herbert, J. D., & Forman, E. M. (2010). Cross-cultural perspectives on posttraumatic stress. In Rosen, G. M. & Frueh, B. C. (Eds.), Clinician’s guide to posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 235–261). John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbert, J. D., Lilienfeld, S. O., Lohr, J. M., Montgomery, R. W., O’Donahue, W. T., Rosen, G. M., & Tolin, D. F. (2000). Science and pseudoscience in the development of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Implications for clinical psychology. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 945–971.Google Scholar
Hickling, E. J., Blanchard, E. B., Mundy, E., & Galovski, T. E. (2002). Detection of malingered MVA related posttraumatic stress disorder: An investigation of the ability to detect professional actors by experienced clinicians, psychological tests, and psychophysiological assessment. Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 2, 33–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, R. D., & Packard, T. (2013). Specialty certification in professional psychology. In Prinstein, M. J. (Ed.), The portable mentor: Expert guide to a successful career in psychology. 2nd ed. (pp. 235–243). Springer Science.Google Scholar
Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218.Google Scholar
Houben, S. T. L., Otaar, H., Roelofs, J., & Merckelbach, H. (2018). Lateral eye movements increase false memory rates. Clinical Psychological Science, 6, 610–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houben, S. T. L., Otgaar, H., Roelofs, J, Smeets, T., & Merckelbach, H. (2020). Increases of correct memories and spontaneous false memories due to eye movements when memories are retrieved after a time delay. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 125, 103546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2019.103546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houben, S. T. L., Otgaar, H., Roelofs, J, Wessel, I., Patihis, L., & Merckelbach, H. (2019). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) practitioner’s beliefs about memory. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research and Practice, 8, 258–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000211.Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Diagnosis and assessment. The National Academies Press.Google Scholar
International Association of Trauma Professionals (2021). https://iitap.com/#.Google Scholar
Kenardy, J. A., Webster, R. A., Lewin, T. J., Carr, V. J., Hazell, P. L., & Carter, G. L. (1996). Stress debriefing and patterns of recovery following a natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 37–49.Google Scholar
Kenchel, J. M., Domagalski, K., Butler, B. J., & Loftus, E. F. (2020). The messy landscape of eye movements and false memories. Memory, 30(6), 678–685. http://dx.doi.org.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/10.1080/09658211.2020.1862234.Google Scholar
Koenen, K. C., Ratanatharathorn, A., Ng, L., McLaughlin, K. A., Bromet, E. J., Stein, D. J., Karam, E. G., Meron Ruscio, A., Benjet, C., Scott, K., Atwoli, L., Petukhova, M., Lim, C. C. W., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Al-Hamzawi, A., Alonson, J., Bunting, B., Ciutan, M., de Girolamo, G., … Kessler, R. C. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the world mental health surveys. Psychological Medicine, 47, 2260–2274.Google Scholar
Koocher, G. F. (1979). Credentialing in psychology: Close encounters with competence? American Psychologist, 34, 696–702.Google Scholar
Kopelman, M. D. (2002). Disorders of memory. Brain, 125, 2152–2190.Google Scholar
Lee, C. W., & Cuijpers, P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 231–239.Google Scholar
Lees-Haley, P. R. (1986). Pseudo post-traumatic stress disorder. Trial Diplomacy, Winter: 17–20.Google Scholar
Lief, H. I. (1999). Patients versus therapists: Legal actions over recovered memory therapy. Psychiatric Times, 16(11).Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O. (2011). Distinguishing scientific from pseudoscientific psychotherapies: Evaluating the role of theoretical plausibility, with a little help from Reverend Bayes. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 18, 105–112.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Bowden, S. C. (2018). Why evidence-based practice isn’t enough: A call for science-based practice. Behavior Therapist, 41, 42–47.Google Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Lohr, J. M. (2015). Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology: Initial thoughts, reflections, and considerations. In Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Lohr, J. M. (Eds.), Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology (2nd ed., pp. 1–16). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Loftus, E., & Ketcham, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory: False memories and allegations of sexual abuse. St. Martin’s Griffin.Google Scholar
Lohr, J. M., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Rosen, G. M. (2012). Anxiety and its treatment: Promoting science-based practice. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 719–727.Google Scholar
Lohr, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., & Devilly, G. J. (2008). Threats to evidence-based treatment of trauma: Professional issues an implications. International Review of Victimology, 15, 125–149.Google Scholar
Lynn, S. J., Krackow, E., Loftus, E. F., Locke, T. G., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2015). Constructing the past: Problematic memory recovery techniques in psychotherapy. In Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., & Lohr, J. M. (Eds.), Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology (2nd ed., pp. 210–244). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
MacCorquodale, K., & Meehl, P. E. (1948). On a distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening variables. Psychological Review, 55, 95–107.Google Scholar
Marchand, A., Guay, S., Boyer, R., Iucci, S., Martin, A., & St-Hilaire, M. H. (2006). A randomized controlled trial of an adapted form of individual critical incident stress debriefing for victims of an armed robbery. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 6, 122–129.Google Scholar
Matto, M., McNiel, D. E., & Binder, R. L. (2019). A systematic approach to the detection of false PTSD. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 47, 1–10.Google Scholar
McHugh, P. R. (2003). The end of a delusion: The psychiatric memory wars are over. Weekly Standard, 36, 31–34.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J. (1999). On eye movements and animal magnetism: A reply to Greenwald’s defense of EMDR. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 617–620.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J. (2003). Remembering trauma. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J. (2006). Psychiatric casualties of war. Science, 313, 923–924.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J. (2007). Dispelling confusion about traumatic dissociative amnesia. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 82, 1083–1087.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J. (2022). Are memories of sexual trauma fragmented? Memory, 30, 26–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2020.1871023.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J., Bryant, R. A., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45–79.Google Scholar
McNally, R. J., Robinaugh, D. J., Wu, G. W. Y., Wang, L., Deserno, M. K., & Borsboom, D. (2015). Mental disorders as causal systems: A network approach to posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychological Science, 3, 836–849.Google Scholar
Meehl, P. E., & Golden, R. (1982). Taxometric methods. In Kendall, P. & Butcher, J. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 127–181). Wiley.Google Scholar
Merckelbach, H., & Patihis, L. (2018). Why “Trauma-related dissociation” is a misnomer in courts: A critical analysis of Brand et al. (2017a, b). Psychological Injury and Law, 11, 370–376.Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. T. (1983). When disaster strikes … The critical incident stress debriefing team. Journal of Emergency Medical Services, 8, 36–39.Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. T., & Everly Jr., G. S. (1998). Critical incident stress management: A new era in crisis intervention. Traumatic Stress Points, 12, 6–11.Google Scholar
Morey, L. C. (1991). Classification of mental disorder as a collection of hypothetical constructs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 289–293.Google Scholar
Nezu, C. M., Finch, A. J. & Simon, N. P. (Eds.) (2009). Becoming board certified by the American Board of Professional Psychology. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
North, C. S., Suris, A. M., Davis, M., & Smith, R. P. (2009). Toward validation of the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 34–41.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., & Cooper, J. (2010). Criterion A: Controversies and clinical implications. In Rosen, G. M. & Frueh, B. C. (Eds.), Clinician’s guide to posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 51–75). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., & Pattison, P. (2004). Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma: Understanding comorbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1390–1396.Google Scholar
Ost, J. (2003). Seeking the middle ground in the ‘memory wars.’ British Journal of Psychology, 94, 125–139.Google Scholar
Ost, J., Costall, A., & Bull, R. (2002). A perfect symmetry? A study of retractors’ experiences of making and then repudiating claims of early sexual abuse. Psychology: Crime and Law, 8, 155–181.Google Scholar
Otgaar, H., Howe, M. L., Dodier, O., Lilienfeld, S., Loftus, E., Lynn, S. J., Merckelbach, H., & Patihis, L. (2021). Belief in unconscious repressed memory persists. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16, 454–460.Google Scholar
Otgaar, H., Howe, M. L., Patihis, L., Merckelbach, H., Lynn, S. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Loftus, E. F. (2019). The return of the repressed: The persistent and problematic claims of long-forgotten trauma. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14, 1072–1095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2012). The rise and fall of dissociative identity disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 200, 1076–1079.Google Scholar
Patihis, L, Otgaar, H., & Merckelbach, H. (2019). Expert witnesses, dissociative amnesia, and extraordinary remembering: Response to Brand et al. Psychological Injury and Law, 12, 281–285.Google Scholar
Patihis, L., Wood, R. S., Pendergrast, M. H., & Herrera, M. E. (2022). Reports of recovered memories in therapy in undergraduate students. Psychological Reports, 125, 129–147. https://doi.org/101177/0033294120971756.Google Scholar
Pignotti, M. (2005). Thought Field Therapy Voice Technology vs. random meridian point sequences: A single-blind controlled experiment. The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, 4, 72–81.Google Scholar
Pignotti, M., & Thyer, B. (2009). Some comments on “Energy psychology: A review of the evidence”: Premature conclusions based on incomplete evidence? Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 46, 257–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pope, K. S., & Brown, L. S. (1996). Recovered memories of abuse: Assessment, therapy, forensics. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Raifman, L. (1983). Problems of diagnosis and legal causation in courtroom use of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 1, 115–130.Google Scholar
Renfrey, G., & Spates, C.R. (1994). Eye movement desensitization: A partial dismantling study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 231–239.Google Scholar
Rose, S., Bisson, B., & Wessely, S. (2005). A systematic review of brief psychological interventions (“debriefing”) for the treatment of immediate trauma related symptoms and the prevention of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. The Cochrane Collaboration (database online). Updated issue 3. Wiley.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M. (1995). The Aleutian Enterprise sinking and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Misdiagnosis in clinical and forensic settings. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 26, 82–87.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M. (2006). DSM’s cautionary guideline to rule out malingering can protect the PTSD data base. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 530–535.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M., & Davison, G. C. (2003). Psychology should list empirically supported principles of change (ESPs) and not credential trademarked therapies or other treatment packages. Behavior Modification, 27, 300–312.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical analysis of core assumptions. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 836–868.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M., Lohr, J. M., McNally, R., & Herbert, J. (1998). Power therapies, miraculous claims, and the cures that fail. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 26, 97–99.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M., Spitzer, R. L., & McHugh, P. R. (2008). Problems with the PTSD diagnosis and its future in DSM-V. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 3–4.Google Scholar
Rosen, G. M., Washburn, J. J., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2020). Specialty certifications for mental health practitioners: A cautionary case study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 51, 545–549.Google Scholar
Ruscio, A. M., Ruscio, J., & Keane, T. M. (2002). The latent structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: A taxometric investigation of reactions to extreme stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 290–301.Google Scholar
Sagan, C. (1996). The demon-haunted world: Science as a candle in the dark. Ballantine Books.Google Scholar
Schubert, S. J., Lee, C. W., & Drummond, P. D. (2010). The efficacy and psychophysiological correlates of dual-attention tasks in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 1–11.Google Scholar
Scoboria, A., Wade, K. A., Lindsay, D. S., Azad, T., Strange, D., Ost, J., & Hyman, I. E. (2017). A mega-analysis of memory reports from eight peer-reviewed false memory implantation studies. Memory, 25, 146–163.Google Scholar
Scott, M. J., & Stradling, S. G. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder without the trauma. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 71–74.Google Scholar
Scott, W. (1990). PTSD in DSM-III: A case in the politics of diagnosis and disease. Social Problems, 37, 294–310.Google Scholar
Sechrest, L. (1963). Incremental validity: A recommendation. Educational and PsychologicalMeasurement, 23, 153–158.Google Scholar
Seyle, H. (1946). The general adaptation syndrome and the diseases of adaptation. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology, 6, 117–230.Google Scholar
Shapiro, F. (1989a). Efficacy of the Eye Movement Desensitization procedure in treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 199–223.Google Scholar
Shapiro, F. (1989b). Eye Movement Desensitization: A new treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 20, 211–217.Google Scholar
Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures. Guilford.Google Scholar
Shephard, B. (2001). A war of nerves: Soldiers and psychiatrists in the twentieth century. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Shephard, B. (2004). Risk factors and PTSD: A historian’s perspective. In Rosen, G.M. (Ed.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies (pp. 39–61). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., Poulin, M., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. JAMA, 288, 1235–1244.Google Scholar
Slovenko, R. (1994). Legal aspects of post-traumatic stress disorder. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17(2), 439–446.Google Scholar
Sparr, L. F. (1990), Legal aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder: uses and abuses. In Wolf, M. E. & Mosnain, A. D. (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, phenomenology, and treatment (pp. 239–264). American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Sparr, L. F. & Atkinson, R. M. (1986). Post-traumatic stress disorder as an insanity defense: Medico-legal quicksand. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 608–613.Google Scholar
Spielmans, G. I., & Rosen, G. M. (2022). Church’s (2020) corrigendum compounds errors and fails to support the specificity of acupoint tapping. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 210, 139–142.Google Scholar
Spielmans, G. I., Rosen, G. M., & Spence-Sing, T. (2020). Tapping away at a misleading meta-analysis: No evidence for specificity of acupoint tapping. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 206, 628–631.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., First, M. B., & Wakefield, J. C. (2007). Saving PTSD from itself in DSM-V. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 233–241.Google Scholar
Strasburger, L. H., Gutheil, T. G., & Brodsky, A. (1997). On wearing two hats: Role conflict in serving as both psychotherapist and expert witness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 448–456.Google Scholar
Summerfield, D. (1999). A critique of seven assumptions behind psychological trauma programmes in war-affected areas. Social Science and Medicine, 48, 1449–1462.Google Scholar
Summerfield, D. (2001). The invention of post-traumatic stress disorder and the social usefulness of a psychiatric category. British Medical Journal, 322, 95–98.Google Scholar
Swab, J. (2020). Critical incident stress management: Perspectives on its history, frequency of use, efficacy, and success. Crisis, Stress, and Human Resilience: An International Journal, 1, 215–226.Google Scholar
Taylor, S., Frueh, B. C., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2007). Detection and management of malingering in people presenting for treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Methods, obstacles, and recommendations. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 22–41.Google Scholar
Trauma Institute International (2021). https://traumainstituteinternational.com/certifications/.Google Scholar
Trimble, M. (1985). Post-traumatic stress disorder: history of a concept. In Figley, C. (Ed.), Trauma and its wake (pp. 5–14). Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Uttal, W. R. (2001). The new phrenology: The limits of localizing cognitive processes in the brain. The MIT Press.Google Scholar
van Emmerik, A. A. P., Kamphuis, J. H., Hulsbosch, A. M., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2002). Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: A meta-analysis. The Lancet, 360, 776–771.Google Scholar
van Schie, K., & Leer, A. (2019). Lateral eye movements do not increase false-memory rates: A failed direct-replication study. Clinical Psychological Science, 7, 1159–1167. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702619859335.Google Scholar
Wakefield, J. C., & Horwitz, A. V. (2010). Normal reactions to adversity or symptoms of disorder? In Rosen, G. M. & Frueh, B. C. (Eds.), Clinician’s guide to posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 33–49). John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Washburn, J. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., Rosen, G. M., Gaudiano, B. A., Davidson, G. C., Hollon, S. D., Otto, M. W., Penberthy, J. K., Sher, K. J., Teachman, B. A., Peris, T., & Weinand, J. (2019). Reaffirming the scientific foundations of psychological practice: Recommendations of the Emory meeting on continuing education. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 50, 77–86.Google Scholar
Watson, P. J., Brymer, M. J., & Bonanno, G. A. (2011). Post disaster psychological intervention since 9/11. American Psychologist, 66, 484–494.Google Scholar
Watters, E. (2010). The globalization of the American psyche: Crazy like us. Free Press.Google Scholar
Wettstein, R. M. (2010) The forensic psychiatric examination and report. In Simon, R. I. & Gold, L. H. (Eds.), Textbook of forensic psychiatry. 2nd ed. American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Woody, R. H. (1997). Dubious and bogus credential in mental health practice. Ethics and Behavior, 7, 337–345.Google Scholar
Young, A. (2004). When traumatic memory was a problem: On the historical antecedents of PTSD. In Rosen, G. M. (Ed.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies (pp. 127–146). John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×