Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T07:03:16.470Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 9 - Obstetric Anesthesia

from Part II - INTRAPARTUM AND POSTPARTUM

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2010

John Patrick O'Grady ,
Martin L. Gimovsky ,
Lucy A. Bayer-Zwirello  and
Kevin Giordano
By
Paul C. Youngstrom ,
Margaret Sedensky  and
Daniel F. Grum
John Patrick O'Grady
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Massachusetts
Paul C. Youngstrom
Affiliation:
Staff Anesthesiologist, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, Ohio
Margaret Sedensky
Affiliation:
Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Department of Genetics University Hospitals of Cleveland Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio
Daniel F. Grum
Affiliation:
Associate Professor, Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee School of Medicine Chief Department of Anesthesiology Director Resident Education Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee Health Science Center Memphis, Tennessee
Get access

Summary

This chapter begins with a discussion on the pharmacology of both new and accepted drugs in obstetric anesthesia management. Drugs administered to the parturient to provide analgesia or anesthesia for childbirth can affect not only maternal physiology but also fetal condition and neonatal well-being. Therapeutic strategies must be formulated with consideration for these effects, as well as the compounding influences of obstetric agents and illicitly consumed substances. Operative anesthesia must be appropriately adapted to the special requirements of surgery during pregnancy but is rarely a legitimate alternative for analgesic management. An obstetric anesthesia service requires a director with interest and skill in management; clinical, educational, or research success is not a substitute. Challenges include provision for appropriate staffing and equipment and fostering effective communication among professional staff from multiple disciplines whose timely, coordinated input is essential to safe, high-quality outcomes.
Type
Chapter
Information
Operative Obstetrics , pp. 193 - 231
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Farr, AD: Early opposition to obstetric anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1980;35:896–907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reid DE: Foreword. In: Bonica, JJ (ed): Principles and Practice of Obstetric Analgesia and Anesthesia. Philadelphia: FA Davis, 1967; pp. vii.Google Scholar
Birthing Babies in the ‘90s. FDA Consumer, December 1992.
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Pain relief during labor. ACOG Committee Opinion #118. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1993.
Abboud, TK, Raya, J, Sadri, S, et al: Fetal and maternal cardiovascular effects of atropine and glycopyrrolate. Anesth Analg 1983;62:426–430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodgkinson, R, Glassberg, R, Joyce, TH, et al: Comparison of cimetidine (Tagamet) with antacid for safety and effectiveness in reducing gastric acidity before elective cesarean section. Anesthesiology 1983;59:86–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scher, J, Hailey, DM, Beard, RW: The effects of diazepam on the fetus. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1972;79:635–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeh, SY, Paul, RH, Cordero, L, et al: A study of diazepam during labor. Obstet Gynecol 1974;43:363–373.Google ScholarPubMed
Bailey, PL, Pace, NL, Ashburn, MD, et al: Frequent hypoxemia and apnea after sedation with midazolam and fentanyl. Anesthesiology 1990;73:826–830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shnider, SM, Way, EL, Lord, MJ: Rate of appearance and disappearance of meperidine in fetal blood after administration of narcotic to the mother. Anesthesiology 1966;27:227–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shnider, SM, Moya, F: Effects of meperidine on the newborn infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1964;89:1009–1015.PubMed
Rayburn, WF, Smith, CV, Parriott, JE, et al: Randomized comparison of meperidine and fentanyl during labor. Obstet Gynecol 1989;74:604–606.Google ScholarPubMed
Dann, WL, Hutchinson, A, Cartwright, DP: Maternal and neonatal responses to alfentanil administered before induction of general anesthesia for caesarean section. Br J Anaesth 1987;59:1392–1396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sousa, H, Stiller, R: Cisternal CSF and arterial plasma levels of fentanyl, alfentanil and sufentanil after lumbar epidural injection. Annual Meeting of the Society for Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology Abstracts of Scientific Papers, Seattle, Washington, 1990.Google Scholar
Romagnoli, A, Keats, AS: Ceiling effect for respiratory depression by nalbuphine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1980;27:478–485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frank, EJ, McAteer, R, Cattermole, B, Loughnan, BA, Stafford, LB, Hitchcock, AM: Nalbuphine for obstetric analgesia: A comparison of nalbuphine with pethidine for pain relief in labour when administered by patient-controlled analgesia (PCA). Anaesthesia 1987;42:697–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maduska, AL, Hajghassemali, M: A double-blind comparison of butorphanol and meperidine in labor: Maternal pain relief and newborn outcome. Can Anaesth Soc J 1978;25:398–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popio, KA, Jackson, DH, Ross, AM, et al: Hemodynamic and respiratory effects of morphine and butorphanol. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1978;23:281–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glass, SA, Hardman, D, Kamiyama, Y, et al: Preliminary pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of an ultra-short-acting opioid: Remifentanil (GI87084B). Anesth Analg 1993;77:1031–1040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talmage, D, Egan, MD, Lemmens, HJ, et al: The pharmacokinetics of the new short-acting opioid remifentanil (GI87084B) in healthy adult male volunteers. Anesthesiology 1993;79:881–892.Google Scholar
Westmoreland, CL, Hoke, JF, Sebel, PS, et al: Pharmacokinetics of remifentanil (GI87084B) and its major metabolite (GI90291) in patients undergoing elective surgery. Anesthesiology 1993;79:893–903.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evron, S, Glezerman, M, Sadan, O, et al: Remifentanil: A novel systemic analgesic for labor pain. Anesth Analg 2005;100:233–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, SE, Desai, JB, Ratner, EF, et al: Ketorolac and spinal morphine for postcesarean analgesia. Anesthesiology 1993;79:A1025.Google Scholar
Cossmi, EV, Condorelli, S, Scarpelli, EM: Fetal asphyxia induced by sodium thiopental, thiamylal, and methohexital. Fourth European Congress of Perinatal Medicine, Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1974 (abstr).Google Scholar
Shnider, SM, Wright, RG, Levinson, G, et al: Plasma norepinephrine and uterine blood flow changes during endotracheal intubation and general anesthesia in the pregnant ewe. Annual Meeting of the American Society of Anesthesiologists Abstracts of Scientific Papers, Chicago, IL, 1978.Google Scholar
Jouppila, P, Kuikka, J, Hollmen, A: Effect of induction of general anesthesia for cesarean section on intervillous blood flow. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 1979;58:249–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marx, GF: Postpartum uterine pressures with different doses of ketamine. Anesthesiology 1979;50:163–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baraka, A, Louis, F, Dalleh, R: Maternal awareness and neonatal outcome after ketamine induction of anaesthesia for caesarean section. Can J Anaesth 1990;37:641–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gin, T, Gregor, A, Oh, TE: The haemodynamic effects of propofol and thiopentone for induction of cesarean section. Anaesth Intens Care 1990;18:175–179.Google Scholar
Dailland, P, Cockshott, ID, Lirzin, JD, et al: Intravenous propofol during cesarean section: Placental transfer, concentrations in breast milk and neonatal effects. Anesthesiology 1989;71:827–834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alon, E, Rosen, MA, Shnider, SM, et al: Maternal and fetal effects of propofol anesthesia in the ewe. Anesthesiology 1991;75:A1077.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gin, T, Yau, G, Chan, K, et al: Disposition of propofol infusions for cesarean section. Can J Anaesth 1991;38:31–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yau, G, Gin, T, Ewart, MC, et al: Propofol for induction and maintenance of anaesthesia at cesarean section: A comparison with thiopental/enflurane. Anaesthesia 1991;46:20–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reddy, BK, Pizer, B, Bull, PT: Neonatal serum cortisol suppression by etomidate compared with thiopentone for elective cesarean section. Eur J Anaesth 1988;5:171–176.Google Scholar
Palahnuik, RJ, Shnider, SM: Maternal and fetal cardiovascular and acid–base changes during halothane and isoflurane anesthesia in the pregnant ewe. Anesthesiology 1974;41:462–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasicka, A, Kretchmer, H: Effect of conduction and inhalation anesthesia on uterine contractions: Experimental study of the influence of anesthesia on intraamniotic pressures. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1961;82:600–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abadir, AR, Humayen, SG, Calvello, D, et al: Effects of isoflurane and oxytocin on gravid human uterus in vitro. Anesth Analg 1987;66:S1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, GF, Kim, YO, Lin, CC, et al: Postpartum uterine pressures under halothane or enflurane anesthesia. Obstet Gynecol 1978;51:695–698.Google ScholarPubMed
James, FM, Greiss, FC, Kemp, RA: An evaluation of vasopressor therapy for maternal hypotension during spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1970;33:25–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, S, Grant, GJ: Vasopressor therapy for hypotension due to anesthesia for cesarean section. Acta Anaesth Scand 1988;32:559–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, DH, Perillo, M, LaPorta, RF, Bader, AM, Datta, S: Phenylephrine in the prevention of hypotension following spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. J Clin Anesth 1991;3:301–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, AM, Morgan, M, Whitwam, JG: Crystalloid versus colloid for circulatory preload for epidural cesarean section. Anaesthesia 1989;44:463–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Datta, S, Hurley, RJ, Naulty, JS, et al: Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid progesterone concentrations in pregnant and nonpregnant women. Anesth Analg 1986;65:950–954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morishima, HO, Pedersen, H, Finster, M, et al: Bupivacaine toxicity in pregnant and nonpregnant ewes. Anesthesiology 1985;63:134–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strichartz GR, Covino BG: Local anesthetics. In: Miller, RD (ed): Anesthesia. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1990; p. 463.Google ScholarPubMed
The Canadian Preterm Labor Investigators Group: Treatment of preterm labor with the beta-adrenergic agonist ritodrine. N Engl J Med 1992;327:308–312.CrossRef
Armson, BA, Samuels, P, Miller, F, et al: Evaluation of maternal fluid dynamics during tocolytic therapy with ritodrine hydrochloride and magnesium sulfate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:758–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, M, Robertson, P, Creasy, R: Complications associated with terbutaline for preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981;139:605–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shin, YK, Kim, YD: Ventricular tachyarrhythmias during cesarean section after ritodrine therapy: Interaction with anesthetics. South Med J 1988;81:528–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simpson, JI, Giffin, JP: A glycopyrrolate-ritodrine drug-drug interaction. Can J Anaesth 1988;35:187–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, J, Sibai, B, Pillai, R, et al: Neuromuscular transmission studies in preeclamptic women receiving magnesium sulfate. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;158:40–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kambam, J, Mouton, S, Entman, S: Effect of preeclampsia on plasma cholinesterase activity. Can J Anaesth 1987;34:579–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zaloga, G, Eisenach, JC: Magnesium, anesthesia, and hemodynamic control. Anesthesiology 1991;74:1–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sipes, SL, Chestnut, D, Vincent, RD Jr, et al: Which vasopressor should be used to treat hypotension during magnesium sulfate infusion and epidural anesthesia?Anesthesiology 1992 ; 77:101–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weis, F, Markello, R, Mo, B, et al: Cardiovascular effects of oxytocin. Obstet Gynecol 1975;46:211–214.Google ScholarPubMed
Partridge, BL, Key, T, Reisner, LS: Life-threatening effects of intravascular absorption of PGF2-alpha during therapeutic termination of pregnancy. Anesth Analg 1988;67:1111–1113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brenner, WE, Hendricks, CH, Braaksma, JT, et al: Intra-amniotic administration of prostaglandin F2α to induce therapeutic abortion: Efficacy and tolerance of two dosing schedules. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1972;141:781–787.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Secher, NJ, Thayssen, PA, Olsen, J: Effect of prostaglandin E2 and F2α on the systemic and pulmonary circulation in pregnant anaesthetized women. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 1982;61:213–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laszo, A, Buljubasic, N, Zsolnai, B, et al: Interactive effects of volatile anesthetics, verapamil, and ryanodine on contractility and calcium homeostasis of isolated pregnant rat myometrium. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:804–810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orlikowski, CEP, Payne, AJ, Moodley, J, et al: Thromboelastography after aspirin ingestion in pregnant and nonpregnant subjects. Br J Anaesth 1992;69:159–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woods, JR, Plessinger, MA: Pregnancy increases cardiovascular toxicity to cocaine. J Obstet Gynecol 1990;162:529–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramoska, E, Sacchetti, AD: Propranolol-induced hypertension in treatment of cocaine intoxication. Ann Emerg Med 1985;14:1112–1113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, TC, Tashkin, DP, Djahed, B, et al: Pulmonary hazards of smoking marijuana as compared with tobacco. N Engl J Med 1988;318:347–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giuffrida, JG, Bizzarri, DV, Saure, AC, et al: Anesthetic management of drug abusers. Anesth Analg 1970;49:272–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melzack, R: The myth of painless childbirth. Pain 1984;19:321–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paech, M, Gurrin, L: A survey of parturients using epidural analgesia during labour: Considerations relevant to antenatal educators. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynecol 1999;39:21–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrea, B, Wright, M: Satisfaction in childbirth and perceptions of personal control in pain relief during labour. J Adv Nurs 1999;29:877–884.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford CS: A Comparative Study of Human Reproduction. New Haven: Yale Medical Press, 1945.
Melzack, R, Taenzer, P, Feldman, P, Kinch, R: Labour is still painful after prepared childbirth training. Can Med Assoc J 1981;125:357–363.Google ScholarPubMed
Melzack, R, Kinch, R: Labour is still painful. Can Med Assoc J 1982;126:357.Google ScholarPubMed
Wuitchik, M, Hesson, K, Bakal, D: Perinatal predictors of pain and distress during labor. Birth 1990;17:186–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanton, ME: The myth of “natural” childbirth. Journal of Nurse-Midwives 1979;24:25–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lederman, RP, Lederman, E, Work, BA, McCann, D: Anxiety and epinephrine in multiparous women in labor: Relationship to duration of labor and fetal heart rate pattern. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:820–827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wuitchik, M, Bakal, D, Lipshitz, J: The clinical significance of pain and cognitive activity in latent labor. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:35–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Stewart, D: Psychiatric symptoms following attemp-ted natural childbirth. Can Med Assoc J 1982;127:713.Google ScholarPubMed
American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Guidelines for Perinatal Care, 3rd ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; Washington, DC: ACOG, 1992; p. 73.
O'Grady, JP, Youngstrom, P: Must epidurals always imply instrumental delivery?Contemporary Obstet and Gynecol 1990;35:19–27.Google Scholar
Thallon, A, Shennan, A: Epidural and spinal analgesia and labour. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2001;13:583–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marucci, M, Fiore, T: Epidural analgesia for labour and delivery. Minerva Anestesiologica 2004;70:643–647.Google ScholarPubMed
Bergmans, M, Geijn, H, Hasaart, T, et al: Fetal and maternal transcutaneous PCO2 levels during labour and the influence of epidural analgesia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996;67:127–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, F, Sharma, S, Seed, P: Analgesia in labour and fetal acid–base balance: A meta-analysis comparing epidural with systemic opioid analgesia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2002;109:1344–1353.Google ScholarPubMed
Goodfellow, CF, Hull, MGR, Swaab, DF: Oxytocin deficiency at delivery with epidural analgesia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983;90:214–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Youngstrom, P, Eastwood, D, Patel, H, et al: Epidural fentanyl and bupivacaine in labor: Double-blind study. Anesthesiology 1984;61:A414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vella, LM, Willatts, DG, Knott, C, et al: Epidural fentanyl in labour: An evaluation of the systemic contribution to analgesia. Anaesthesia 1985;40:741–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Angelo, R, Gerancher, J, Eisenach, J, et al: Epidural fentanyl produces labor analgesia by a spinal mechanism. Anesthesiology 1998;88:1519–1523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, JG, Kitahata, LM, Matsumoto, M, et al: Spinally administered epinephrine suppresses noxiously evoked activity of WDR neurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Anesthesiology 1984;60:269–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Youngstrom, P, Boyd, D, Rhoton, F: Statistical process control (SPC) in OB anesthesia service: Six years experience. Anesthesiology 1992;77:A1020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Youngstrom, P, Sedensky, M, Frankmann, D, et al: Continuous epidural infusion of low-dose bupivacaine-fentanyl for labor analgesia. Anesthesiology 1988;69:A686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harms, C, Siegmund, M, Marsch, S, et al: Initiating extradural analgesia during labour: Comparison of three different bupivacaine concentrations used as the loading dose. Fetal Diagn Ther 1999;14:368–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hood, DD, Dewan, DM, James, FM: Maternal and fetal effects of epinephrine in gravid ewes. Anesthesiology 1986;64:610–613.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Youngstrom, P, Hot, M, Veille, JC, et al: Effects of intravenous test dose epinephrine on fetal sheep during acute fetal stress and acidosis. Reg Anesth 1990;15:237–241.Google ScholarPubMed
Zundert, AA, DeWolf, AM, Vaes, L, Soetens, M: High-volume spinal anesthesia with bupivacaine 0.125% for cesarean section. Anesthesiology 1988;69:998–1003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ng, A, Shah, J, Smith, G: Is continuous spinal analgesia via an epidural catheter appropriate after accidental subarachnoid administration of 15 ml of bupivacaine 0.1% containing fentanyl 2 μg/mL?Int J Obstet Anesth 2004;13:107–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daoud, Z, Collis, R, Ateleanu, B, et al: Evaluation of S1 motor block to determine a safe, reliable test dose for epidural analgesia. Br J Anaesth 2002;89:442–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, B, Matouskova-Hanson, A: Continuous epidural analgesia for vaginal delivery in Sweden. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1985;29:712–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamont, RF, Pinney, D, Rodgers, P, et al: Continuous versus intermittent epidural analgesia. Anaesthesia 1989;44:893–896.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abrahams, M, Higgins, P, Whyte, P, et al: Intact proprioception and control of labour pain during epidural analgesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1999;43:46–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parry, M, Fernando, R, Bawa, G, et al: Dorsal column function after epidural and spinal blockade: Implications for the safety of walking following low-dose regional analgesia for labour. Anaesthesia 1998;53:382–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breen, TW, Shapiro, T, Glass, B, et al: Epidural anesthesia for labor in an ambulatory patient. Anesth Analg 1993;77:919–924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vallejo, M, Firestone, L, Mandell, G, et al: Effect of epidural analgesia with ambulation on labor duration. Anesthesiology 2001;95:857–861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melzack, R, Belanger, E, Lacroix, R: Labor pain: Effect of maternal position on front and back pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1991;6:476–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, R: Assessment of motor blockade during epidural analgesia in labour. Int J Obstet Anesth 1992;1:230–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, JD, Henderson, K, Bowden, MI, Lewis, M, Cooper, GM: Bupivacaine versus bupivacaine plus fentanyl for epidural analgesia: Effect on maternal satisfaction. Br Med J 1991;302:564–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, JS: The stages and phases of labour: An outworn nomenclature that invites hazard. Lancet 1983;2:271–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, F, Leveno, K, Bloom, S, Hauth, J, Gilstrap, L, Wenstrom, K: Williams Obstetrics, 22nd ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2005.Google Scholar
Elkington, KW: At the water's edge: Where obstetrics and anesthesia meet. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:304–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capogna, G, Camorcia, M: Epidural analgesia for childbirth: Effects of newer techniques on neonatal outcome. Pediatr Drugs 2004;6:375–386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kangas-Saarela, T, Jouppila, R, Alahuhta, S, et al: The effect of lumbar epidural analgesia on the neurobehavioural responses of newborn infants. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1989;33:320–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, G, Paul, DL, Elton, RA, et al: Comparison of bupivacaine and bupivacaine with fentanyl in continuous extradural analgesia during labour. Br J Anaesth 1989;63:254–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halpern, S, Levine, T, Wilson, D, et al: Effect of labor analgesia on breastfeeding success. Birth 1999;26:83–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, JS, A prospective study of 200 consecutive twin deliveries. Anaesth 1987;42:33–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolbin, S, Tey, S, Ananthanarayan, C: Anaesthesia for preterm labour and delivery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 1992;5:360–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zundert, A, Vaes, L, Soetens, M, et al: Are breech deliveries an indication for lumbar epidural analgesia?Anesth Analg 1991;72:399–403.Google ScholarPubMed
Writer WDR: The pregnant diabetic. In: Hood, DD (ed): Anesthesia in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1989; pp. 69–89.Google Scholar
Johnson, C, Oriol, N: The role of epidural anesthesia in trial of labor. Reg Anesth 1990;15:304–308.Google ScholarPubMed
Hood, DD, Dewan, DM: Anesthetic and obstetric outcome in morbidly obese parturients. Anesthesiology 1993;79:1210–1218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mangano DT: Anesthesia for the pregnant cardiac patient. In: Shnider, SM, Levinson, G (eds): Anesthesia for Obstetrics, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1993; pp. 485–523.Google Scholar
Jouppila, P, Jouppila, R, Hollmen, A, et al: Lumbar epidural analgesia to improve intervillous blood flow during labor in severe preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1982;59:158–161.Google ScholarPubMed
Crawford, JS: Epidural analgesia for patients with chronic neurological disease. Anesth Analg 1983;62:620–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crosby, ET, Halpern, SH, Rolbin, SH: Epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section in patients with active recurrent genital herpes simplex infections: A retrospective review. Can J Anaesth 1989;36:701–704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershon, R, Manning-Williams, D: Anesthesia and the HIV-infected parturient: A retrospective study. Int J Obstet Anesth 1997;6:76–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bader, AM, Gilbertson, L, Kirz, L, et al: Regional anesthesia in women with chorioamnionitis. Reg Anesth 1992;17:84–86.Google ScholarPubMed
Cheek TG, Banner RN: Orthopedic/neurologic diseases. In: Hood, DD (ed): Anesthesia in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1989; pp. 112–129.Google Scholar
Wuitchik, M, Bakal, D, Lipshitz, J: Relationships between pain, cognitive activity and epidural analgesia during labor. Pain 1990;41:125–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vahratian, A, Zhang, J, Hasting, J, et al: The effect of early epidural versus early intravenous analgesia use on labor progression: A natural experiment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;191:259–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, R, Gilson, G, Miller, A, et al: Active management of labor: Does it make a difference?Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:599–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanathan, J, Coleman, P, Sibai, B: Anesthetic modification of hemodynamic and neuroendocrine stress responses to cesarean delivery in women with severe preeclampsia. Anesth Analg 1991;73:772–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindheimer, MD, Katz, AI: Hypertension in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1985;313:675–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pritchard, JA, MacDonald, PC, Gant, NF: Williams Obstetrics, 17th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1985; p. 551.Google Scholar
Phillips, KC, Thomas, TA: Second stage of labour with or without extradural analgesia. Anaesthesia 1983;38:972–976.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chestnut, DH, Laszewski, LJ, Pollack, KL, et al: Continuous epidural infusion of 0.0625% bupivacaine-0.0002% fentanyl during the second stage of labor. Anesthesiology 1990;72:613–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olofsson, C, Ekblom, A, Ekman-Ordeberg, G, et al: Obstetric outcome following epidural analgesia with bupivacaine-adrenaline 0.25% or bupivacaine 0.125% with sufentanil – a prospective randomized controlled study in 1000 parturients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998;42:284–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comparative Obstetric Mobile Epidural Trial (COMET) Study Group UK: Randomized controlled trial comparing traditional with two “mobile” epidural techniques. Anesthesiology 2002;97:1567–1575.CrossRef
Gaiser, R: Labor epidural and outcome. Best Pract Res Clin Anesthesiol 2005;19:1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, C, Scavone, B, Peaceman, A, et al: The risk of cesarean delivery with neuraxial analgesia given early. N Engl J Med 2005;352:655–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, J, Klebanoff, M, DerSimonian, R: Epidural analgesia in association with duration of labor and mode of delivery: A quantitative review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;180:970–977.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, S, McIntire, D, Wiley, J, et al: Labor analgesia and cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology 2004;100:142–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maresh, M, Choong, KH, Beard, RW: Delayed pushing with lumbar epidural analgesia in labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983;90:623–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Practice Bulletin Number 17, June 2000. Operation Vaginal Delivery. Washington, DC: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.
Roberts, C, Torvaldsen, S, Cameron, C, et al: Delayed versus early pushing in women with epidural analgesia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Obstet Gynecol 2004;111:1333–340.Google ScholarPubMed
Plunkett, B, Lin, A, Wong, C, et al: Management of the second stage of labor in nulliparas with continuous epidural analgesia. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:109–114.Google ScholarPubMed
Vause, S, Congdon, H, Thornton, J: Immediate and delayed pushing in the second stage of labour for nulliparous women with epidural analgesia: A randomized controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:186–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sia, A, Chong, J: Epidural 0.2% ropivacaine for labour analgesia: Parturient-controlled or continuous infusion?Anaesth Intensive Care 1999;27:154–158.Google ScholarPubMed
Collis, R, Plaat, F, Morgan, B: Comparison of midwife top-ups, continuous infusion and patient-controlled epidural analgesia for maintaining mobility after a low-dose combined spinal-epidural. Br J Anaesth 1999;82:233–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vyver, M, Halpern, S, Joseph, G: Patient-controlled epidural analgesia versus continuous infusion for labour analgesia: A meta-analysis. Br J Anaesth 2002;89:459–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksson, S, Gentele, C, Olofsson, C: PCEA compared to continuous epidural infusion in an ultra-low-dose regimen for labor pain relief: A randomized study. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2003;47:1085–1090.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, SE, Cherry, CM, Holbrook, RH, et al: Intrathecal sufentanil for labor analgesia – sensory changes, side effects, and fetal heart rate changes. Anesthesiology 1993;77:1155–1160.Google ScholarPubMed
Camann, WR, Mintzer, BH, Denney, RA, et al: Intrathecal sufentanil for labor analgesia: Effects of added epinephrine. Anesthesiology 1993;78:870–874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grieco, WM, Norris, MC, Leighton, BL, et al: Intrathecal sufentanil labor analgesia: The effects of adding morphine or epinephrine. Anesth Analg 1993;77:1149–1154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caldwell, , Rosen, MA, Shnider, SM: Subarachnoid morphine and fentanyl for labor analgesia. Reg Anesth 1994;19:2–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Stocks, G, Hallworth, S, Fernando, R, et al: Minimum local analgesic dose of intrathecal bupivacaine in labor and the effect of intrathecal fentanyl. Anesthesiology 2001;94:593–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vitanen, H, Porthan, L, Vitanen, M, et al: Postpartum neurologic symptoms following single-shot spinal block for labour analgesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2005;49:1015–1022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chadwick, HS, Posner, K, Caplan, RA, Ward, RJ, Cheney, FW: A comparison of obstetric and nonobstetric anesthesia malpractice claims. Anesthesiology 1991;74:242–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Velde, M, Teunkens, A, Hanssens, M, et al: Intrathecal sufentanil and fetal heart rate abnormalities: A double-blind, double placebo-controlled trial comparing two forms of combined spinal epidural analgesia with epidural analgesia in labor. Anesth Analg 2004;98:1153–1159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Velde, : Combined spinal epidural analgesia for labor and delivery: A review. Acta Anaesth Belg 2004;55:17–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Albright, G, Forster, R: The safety and efficacy of combined spinal and epidural analgesia/anesthesia (6,002 blocks) in a community hospital. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1999;24:117–125.Google Scholar
DeBalli, P, Breen, T: Intrathecal opioids for combined spinal-epidural analgesia during labour. CNS Drugs 2003;17:889–904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, R: Combined spinal epidural analgesia is the preferred technique for labour analgesia. Acta Anaesth Belg 2002;53:331–334.Google ScholarPubMed
D'Angelo, R: New techniques for labor analgesia: PCEA and CSE. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2003;46:623–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nickells, J, Vaughan, D, Lillywhite, N, et al: Speed of onset of regional analgesia in labour: A comparison of the epidural and spinal routes. Anaesthesia 2000;55:17–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hepner, D, Gaiser, R, Cheek, T, et al: Comparison of combined spinal-epidural and low dose epidural for labour analgesia. Can J Anesth 2000;47:232–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nageotte, M, Larson, D, Rumney, P, et al: Epidural analgesia compared with combined spinal-epidural analgesia during labor in nulliparous Women. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1715–1719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernis, L, Duale, C, Storme, B, et al: Perispinal analgesia for labour followed by patient-controlled infusion with bupivacaine and sufentanil: Combined spinal-epidural vs. epidural analgesia alone. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2004;21:186–192.Google ScholarPubMed
Greenhalgh, C: Respiratory arrest in a parturient following intrathecal injection of sufentanil and bupivacaine. Anaesthesia 1996;51:173–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pan, P, Moore, C, Ross, V: Severe maternal bradycardia and asystole after combined spinal-epidural labor analgesia in a morbidly obese parturient. J Clin Anesth 2004;16:461–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandal, N, Surapaneni, S: Regional anaesthesia in pre-eclampsia. Drugs 2004;64:223–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horlocker, T, Wedel, D, Benzon, H, et al: Regional anesthesia in the anticoagulated patient: Defining the risks (The Second ASRA Consensus Conference on Neuraxial Anesthesia and Anticoagulation). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003;28:172–197.Google Scholar
Crowhurst, J, Plaat, F: Why mothers die – Report on confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom 1994–96. Anaesthesia 1999;54:207–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feinstein, SJ, Lodeiro, JG, Vintzileos, AM, Campbell, WA, Montgomery, JT, Nochimson, DJ: Sinusoidal fetal heart rate pattern after administration of nalbuphine hydrochloride: A case report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;154:159–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatjis, CG, Meis, PJ: Sinusoidal fetal heart rate pattern associated with butorphanol administration. Obstet Gynecol 1986;67:377–380.Google ScholarPubMed
Rayburn, W, Leuschen, P, Earl, R, Woods, M, Lordovic, M, Gaston-Johansson, F: Intravenous meperidine during labor: A randomized comparison between nursing and patient-controlled administration. Obstet Gynecol 1989;74:702–705.Google ScholarPubMed
Kleiman, SJ, Wiesel, S, Tessler, MJ: Patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) using fentanyl in a parturient with a platelet function abnormality. Can J Anaesth 1991;38:489–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Podlas, J, Breland, BD: Patient-controlled analgesia with nalbuphine during labor. Obstet Gynecol 1987;70:202–204.Google ScholarPubMed
Goins, JR: Experience with mepivacaine paracervical block in an obstetric private practice. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:342–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baxi, LV, Petrie, RH, James, LS: Human fetal oxygenation following paracervical block. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;135:1109–1112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, RR, Halevy, S, Almonte, RO, Gunderson, K, Hinsvark, ON, O'Brien, JE: Comparison of lidocaine and 2-chloroprocaine in paracervical block: clinical effects and drug concentrations in mother and child. Anesth Analg 1983;62:168–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kangas-Saarela, T, Jouppila, R, Puolakka, J, Jouppila, P, Hollmen, A, Puukka, M: The effect of bupivacaine paracervical block on the neurobehavioural responses of newborn infants. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1988;32:566–570.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonica, JJ: Principles and Practice of Obstetric Analgesia and Anesthesia. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 1967; pp. 487–506.Google Scholar
American Society of Anesthesiologists: Basic Standards for Preanesthesia Care (October, 1987); Standards for Basic Anesthetic Monitoring (October, 1986, amended 1993); Standards for Postanesthesia Care (October, 1988, amended 1992); and Guidelines for Patient Care in Anesthesiology (October, 1967, amended 1985).
Evans, CM, Murphy, JF, Gray, OP, Rosen, M: Epidural versus general anaesthesia for elective caesarean section: Effect on Apgar score and acid–base status of the newborn. Anaesthesia 1989;44:778–782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brizgys, RV, Dailey, PA, Shnider, SM, Kotelko, DM, Levinson, G: The incidence and neonatal effects of maternal hypotension during epidural anesthesia for cesarean section. Anesthesiology 1987;67:782–786.Google ScholarPubMed
Dewan, DM: Anesthesia for preterm delivery, breech presentation, and multiple gestation. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987;30:566–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Portnoy, D, Vadhera, R: Mechanisms and management of an incomplete epidural block for cesarean section. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 2003;21:39–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
deRosayro, AM, Hahrwold, ML, Hill, AB: Cardiovascular effects of epidural epinephrine in the pregnant sheep. Reg Anesth 1981;6:4–7.Google Scholar
Albright, GA, Jouppila, R, Hollmen, AI, Jouppila, P, Vierola, H, Kiovula, A: Epinephrine does not alter human intervillous blood flow during epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1981;54:131–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiFazio, CA, Carron, H, Grosslight, KR, Moscicki, JC, Bolding, WR, Johns, RA: Comparison of pH-adjusted lidocaine solutions for epidural anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1986;65:760–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ackerman, WE, Juneja, MM, Colclough, GW, Kaczorowski, DM: Epidural fentanyl significantly decreases nausea and vomiting during uterine manipulation in awake patients undergoing cesa-rean section. Anesthesiology 1988;69:A679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preston, PG, Rosen, MA, Hughes, SC, et al: Epidural anesthesia with fentanyl and lidocaine for cesarean section: Maternal effects and neonatal outcome. Anesthesiology 1988;68:938–943.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benlabed, M, Dreizzen, E, Ecoffey, C, Escourrou, P, Migdal, M, Gaultier, C: Neonatal patterns of breathing after cesarean section with or without epidural fentanyl. Anesthesiology 1990;73:1110–1113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Anesthesia for emergency deliveries. ACOG Committee Opinion #104. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1992.
Crowhurst, JA: General anaesthesia in obstetrics. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 1991;4:349–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanathan, J, Ricca, DM, Sibai, BM, Angel, JJ: Epidural vs general anesthesia in fetal distress with various abnormal fetal heart rate patterns. Anesth Analg 1988;67:S180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J, Khan, M: Anaesthesia for caesarean section: A survey in a UK region from 1992 to 2002. Anaesthesia 2003;58:1101–1118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abboud, TK, Nagappla, S, Murakawa, K, et al: Comparison of the effects of regional and general anesthesia for cesarean section on neonatal neurologic and adaptive scores. Anesth Analg 1985;64:996–1000.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, MC: Hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean section: Does it affect neonatal outcome?Reg Anesth 1987;12:191–194.Google Scholar
Datta, S, Kitzmiller, JL, Naulty, JS, Ostheimer, GW, Weiss, JB: Acid–base status of diabetic mothers and the infant following spinal anesthesia for cesarean section. Anesth Analg 1982;61:662–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, JS: There is only a limited place for spinals in obstetrics. Acta Anaesthesiol Belgica 1988;39:181–184.Google Scholar
Vegfors M, Cederholm I, Gupta A, et al: Spinal or epidural anaesthesia for elective caesarean section? Int J Obstet Anesth 1992;1:141–144.
Abouleish, EI: Epinephrine improves the quality of spinal hyperbaric bupivacaine for cesarean section. Anesth Analg 1987;66 :395–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunt, CO, Naulty, JS, Bader, AM, et al: Perioperative analgesia with subarachnoid fentanyl-bupivacaine for cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology 1989;71:535–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shende, D, Cooper, G, Bowden, M: The influence of intrathecal fentanyl on the characteristics of subarachnoid block for caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1998;53:702–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manullang, T, Viscomi, C, Pace, N: Intrathecal fentanyl is superior to intravenous ondansetron for the prevention of perioperative nausea during cesarean delivery with spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2000;90:1162–1166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marx, GF, Luykx, WM, Cohen, S: Fetal-neonatal status following cesarean section for fetal distress. Br J Anaesth 1984;56:1009–1013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hood, D: Spinal anesthesia is the preferred technique for cesarean section in severe preeclamp-sia: Proponent position. Acta Anaesthe Belg 2002;53:305–310.Google Scholar
Rawal, N, Holmstrom, B, Crowhurst, J, et al: The combined spinal-epidural technique. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 2000;18:267–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dresner, M, Freeman, J: Anaesthesia for caesarean section. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2001;15:127–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marx, GF, Schwalbe, SS: Obstetric anesthesia and analgesia. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1989;1:156–164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, M: Anaesthetic contribution to maternal mortality. Br J Anaesth 1987;59:842–855.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawkins, J: Anesthesia-related maternal mortality. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2003;46:679–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClur, J, Cooper, G: Fifty years of confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom: Should anaesthesia celebrate or not?Int J Obstet Anesth 2004;87–89.Google Scholar
Munnur, U, Suresh, M: Airway problems in pregnancy. Crit Care Clin 2004;20 :617–642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, BM, Magni, V, Goroszeniuk, T: Anaesthesia for emergency caesarean section. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;97:420–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goudsouzian, N: Anesthesia for cesarean section and acid aspiration prophylaxis. Anesth Analg 1999;89:533.Google ScholarPubMed
Ley, SJ, Scheller, J, Jones, BR, Slotnick, N: Intrauterine pressure during administration of nitroglycerin for extraction of retained placenta. Anesth Rev 1993;20:95–97.Google Scholar
Peng, ATC, Gorman, RS, Shulman, SM, et al: Intravenous nitroglycerin for uterine relaxation in the postpartum patient with retained placenta. Anesthesiology 1989;71:172–173CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeSimone, CA, Norris, MC, Leighton, BL: Intravenous nitroglycerin aids manual extraction of a retained placenta. Anesthesiology 1990;73:787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altabef, KM, Spencer, JT, Zinberg, S: Intravenous nitroglycerin for uterine relaxation of an inverted uterus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1237–1238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayer, DC, Weeks, SK: Antepartum uterine relaxation with nitroglycerin at caesarean delivery. Can J Anaesth 1992;39:166–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolbin, SH, Hew, EM, Bernstein, A: Uterine relaxation can be life saving. Can J Anaesth 1991;38:939–940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolbin, SH: Commentary. Can J Anaesth 1992;39:168–169.Google Scholar
Wheeler, A, James, F, Meis, P, et al: Effects of nitroglycerin and nitroprusside on the uterine vasculature of gravid ewes. Anesthesiology 1989;52:390–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hood, D, Dewan, D, James, F, et al: The use of nitroglycerin in preventing the hypertensive response to tracheal intubation in severe preeclampsia. Anesthesiology 1985;63:329–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Condous, G, Arulkumaran, S: Medical and conservative surgical management of postpartum hemorrhage. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2003;25:931–936.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tamizian, O, Arulkumaran, S: The surgical management of postpartum haemorrhage. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2002;16:81–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parekh, N, Husanini, S, Russell, I: Caesarean section for placenta praevia: A retrospective study of anaesthetic management. Br J Anaesth 2000;84:725–730.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shibata, K, Yamamoto, Y, Murakami, S: Effects of epidural anesthesia on cardiovascular responses and survival in experimental hemorrhagic shock in dogs. Anesthesiology 1989;71:953–959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T: Maternal deaths from anaesthesia. An extract from Why Mothers Die 2000–2002: The Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom. Br J Anaesth 2005;94:424–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, G, McClure, J: Maternal deaths from anaesthesia. An extract from Why Mothers Die 2000–2002: The Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom. Br J Anaesth 2005;94:417–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, PG, Pope, WDB, Cohen, MM, Greer, N: The safety of anesthesia and surgery during pregnancy. Anesthesiology 1986;64:790–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazze, RI, Kallen, B: Reproductive outcome after anesthesia and operation during pregnancy: A registry study of 5405 cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:1178–1185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levinson, G, Shnider, SM, deLorimier, AA, Steffenson, JL: Effects of maternal hyperventilation on uterine blood flow and fetal oxygenation and acid–base status. Anesthesiology 1974;40:340–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marx, GF: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of late-pregnant women. Anesthesiology 1982;56:156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doan-Wiggins L: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation during pregnancy. In: Benrubi, GI (ed): Obstetric and Gynecologic Emergencies. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1994; pp. 77–85.Google Scholar
Cade, L, Ashley, J: Towards optimal analgesia after caesarean section: Comparison of epidural and intravenous patient-controlled opioid analgesia. Anaesth Intens Care 1993;21:696–699.Google ScholarPubMed
Eisenach, J, Grice, S, Dewan, D: Patient-controlled analgesia following cesarean section: A comparison with epidural and intramuscular narcotics. Anesthesiology 1988;68:444–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Youngstrom, P, Cowan, RI, Sutheimer, C, Eastwood, DW, Yu, JCM: Pain relief and plasma concentrations from epidural and intramuscular morphine in post-cesarean patients. Anesthesiology 1982;57:404–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, T, Breen, T, Archer, D, et al: Comparison of 0.25 mg and 0.1 mg intrathecal morphine for analgesia after cesarean section. Can J Anaesth 1999;46:856–860.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pavy, T, Paech, M, Evans, S: The effect of ketorolac on opioid requirement and pain after cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg 2001;92:1010–1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs: The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 1002;108:776–785.
Somrat, C, Oranuch, K, Ketchada, U: Optimal dose of nalbuphine for treatment of intrathecal-morphine induce pruritus after caesarean section. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 1999;25:209–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, C, Nogami, W, Maren, G, et al: Postcesarean epidural morphine: A dose-response study. Anesth Analg 2000;90:887–891.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Youngstrom, P, Moraes, JM, Neves, JF, et al: Postcesarean epidural analgesia: Morphine bolus or fentanyl infusion?Anesthesiology 1993;79:A1024.Google Scholar
Vercauteren, M, Vereecken, K, Malfa, M, et al: Cost-effectiveness of analgesia after Caesarean section: A comparison of intrathecal morphine and epidural PCA. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2002;46:85–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Youngstrom, P: Financial aspects of patient-controlled analgesia – stimulus for development in a changing environment. Proceedings of the Patient-Controlled Analgesia Symposium, the University of Wales College of Medicine, Naples, FL, 1993.Google Scholar
Levinson, G, Shnider, SM: Editorial: Obstetric anesthesia coverage – a continuing problem. Anesthesiology 1986;65:245–246.Google ScholarPubMed
Gibbs, CP, Krischer, J, Peckam, BM, et al: Obstetric anesthesia: A national survey. Anesthesiology 1986;65:298–306.Google ScholarPubMed
American Society of Anesthesiologists: Guidelines for Regional Anesthesia in Obstetrics (October, 1988, amended 1991).
Downing JW, Brown WU: Standards of care: Managing an obstetric anesthesia service. In: Norris, MC (ed): Obstetric Anesthesia. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1993; p. 808.Google Scholar
Rosaeg, OP, Yarnell, RW, Lindsay, MP: The obstetrical anesthesia assessment clinic: A review of six years' experience. Can J Anaesth 1993;40:346–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, SL, Koonings, PP, Phelan, JP: Placenta previa/accreta and prior cesarean section. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:89–92.Google ScholarPubMed
Thomas, TA: Obstetric anaesthesia and analgesia: Editorial overview. Cur Opin Anaesthesiol 1991;4:325–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knapp, RM: Legal view of informed consent for anesthesia during labor. Anesthesiology 1990;72:211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vacanti, CJ, Vitez, TS: How quality assurance and the peer review process can help your department. In: Peer Review in Anesthesiology. Park Ridge, IL: American Society of Anesthesiologists, 1992: 60.Google Scholar
Eagle, CJ, Pagenkopf, D: The cost of an established quality assurance programme: Is it worth it?Can J Anaesth 1994;41:813–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ishikawa K: Cause and Effect Diagram (CE Diagram). In: Ishikawa, K (ed): Guide to Quality Control, 2nd (rev. Eng. ed.). Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, 1986; pp. 18–29.Google Scholar
Youngstrom P, Boyd D, Rhoton F: Computerized quality assurance assessment of obstetric anesthesia care: New outcome indicators. In: Ikeda, K, Doi, M, Kazama, T, et al (eds): Computing and Monitoring in Anesthesia and Intensive Care. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 1992; pp. 304–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

  • Obstetric Anesthesia
    • By Paul C. Youngstrom, Staff Anesthesiologist, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, Ohio, Margaret Sedensky, Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Department of Genetics University Hospitals of Cleveland Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio, Daniel F. Grum, Associate Professor, Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee School of Medicine Chief Department of Anesthesiology Director Resident Education Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee Health Science Center Memphis, Tennessee
  • John Patrick O'Grady, Tufts University, Massachusetts, Martin L. Gimovsky, Lucy A. Bayer-Zwirello, Kevin Giordano
  • Book: Operative Obstetrics
  • Online publication: 07 May 2010
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511580987.011
Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

  • Obstetric Anesthesia
    • By Paul C. Youngstrom, Staff Anesthesiologist, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, Ohio, Margaret Sedensky, Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Department of Genetics University Hospitals of Cleveland Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio, Daniel F. Grum, Associate Professor, Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee School of Medicine Chief Department of Anesthesiology Director Resident Education Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee Health Science Center Memphis, Tennessee
  • John Patrick O'Grady, Tufts University, Massachusetts, Martin L. Gimovsky, Lucy A. Bayer-Zwirello, Kevin Giordano
  • Book: Operative Obstetrics
  • Online publication: 07 May 2010
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511580987.011
Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

  • Obstetric Anesthesia
    • By Paul C. Youngstrom, Staff Anesthesiologist, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, Ohio, Margaret Sedensky, Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Department of Genetics University Hospitals of Cleveland Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio, Daniel F. Grum, Associate Professor, Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee School of Medicine Chief Department of Anesthesiology Director Resident Education Department of Anesthesiology The University of Tennessee Health Science Center Memphis, Tennessee
  • John Patrick O'Grady, Tufts University, Massachusetts, Martin L. Gimovsky, Lucy A. Bayer-Zwirello, Kevin Giordano
  • Book: Operative Obstetrics
  • Online publication: 07 May 2010
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511580987.011
Available formats
×