Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T06:38:52.446Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 17 - Instrumental Delivery

from Part III - SURGICAL PROCEDURES

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 May 2010

John Patrick O'Grady ,
Martin L. Gimovsky ,
Lucy A. Bayer-Zwirello  and
Kevin Giordano
John Patrick O'Grady
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Massachusetts
Get access

Summary

This chapter discusses instrument design, technique of application, and the risks and benefits of assisted delivery. The principal controversies concerning instrumental delivery by both forceps and the vacuum extractor are reviewed, and recommendations are made about the use of these instruments. The focus of this presentation remains the desirability and safety of instrumental delivery and a critical analysis of what constitute the best modern practice. Delivery instruments are conveniently classified into eight types: five of forceps, two of vacuum extractors, and one for miscellaneous instruments. The most important contraindications to vaginal delivery operations are operator inexperience and the inability to achieve a proper application. Educating clinicians in the appropriate use of force in instrumental deliveries is a difficult task. Instrument application involves forceps operation, and vacuum extraction. Maternal perineal lacerations are common complications of all operative vaginal deliveries; most are associated with episiotomy.

Keywords

cesarean deliveryepisiotomyforceps operationvacuum extractioninstrumental deliverymaternal perineal lacerations
Type
Chapter
Information
Operative Obstetrics , pp. 455 - 508
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Speert, H., The obstetric forceps. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1960. 3:761–6.
Drinkwater, K., The midwifery forceps: Historical sketch. Med Chir J 1913. 64:451–65.
Hibbard, B., The obstetrician's armamentarium. 2000, San Anselmo, CA: Norman Publishing.Google Scholar
Patel, R. R., Murphy, D. J., Forceps delivery in modern obstetric practice. Br Med J 2004. May 29; 328 (7451):1302–5.
O'Grady, J., Instrumental Delivery: A critique of current practice. In Gynecologic, Obstetric, and Related Surgery, Second Edition, Nichols, D., Clarke-Pearson D. L., eds. 2000, St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, p. 1081–1105.Google Scholar
Guillemette, J., Fraser, W. D., Differences between obstetricians in caesarean section rates and the management of labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992. Feb; 99(2):105–8.
Chang, A., Noah, M. S., Laros, R. K. Jr., Obstetric attending physician characteristics and their impact on vacuum and forceps delivery rates: University of California at San Francisco experience from 1977 to 1999. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002. Jun; 186(6): 1299–303.
Demissie, K., Rhoads, G. G., Smulian, J. C., Balasubramanian, B. A., Gandhi, K., Joseph, K. S., Kramer, M., Operative vaginal delivery and neonatal and infant adverse outcomes: Population-based retrospective analysis. Br Med J 2004. 3 July; 329 (7456):24–9.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 17, June 2000: Operative Vaginal Delivery.
Roberts, C., Algert, C. S., Carnegie, M., Operative delivery during labour: Trends and predictive factors. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2002. Apr; 16(2): 115–23.
Bofill, J., Rust, O. A., Schorr, S. J., A randomized prospective trial of the obstetric forceps versus the M-cup vacuum extractor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996. Nov; 175(5):1325–30.
DeLee, J., The prophylactic forceps operation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1920. 1:34–44.
Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, Guidelines for operative vaginal birth. Number 148, May 2004. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2005. Feb; 88(2):229–36.
O'Grady, J. P., Modern Instrumental Delivery. 1988, Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 49, December 2003: Dystocia and Augmentation of Labor.
Rosen, M., Management of Labor. 1990, New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Hilton, P., Vesico-vaginal fistulas in developing countries. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2003. Sept; 82(3): 285–95.
Piper, J., Bolling, D. R., Newton, E. R., The second stage of labor: Factors influencing duration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991. Oct; 165(4 Pt 1):976–9.
Fraser, W., Cayer, M., Soeder, B. M., Turcot, L., Marcoux, S., for the PEOPLE (Pushing Early or Pushing Late) and W. E. S. Group, Risk factors for difficult delivery in nulliparas with epidural anesthesia in second stage of labor. Obstet Gynecol 2002. Mar; 99(3):409–18.Google Scholar
Feinstein, U., Sheiner, E., Levy, A., Hallak, M., Mazor, M., Risk factors for arrest of descent during the second stage of labor. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2002. Apr; 77(1):7–14.
Menticoglou, S., Manning, F., Harman, C., Perinatal outcome in relation to second-stage duration. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995. Sept; 73(3 Pt 1):906–12.
Cheng, Y., Hopkins, L. M., Caughey, A. B., How long is too long: Does a prolonged second stage of labor in nulliparous women affect maternal and neonatal outcomes? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004. Sept; 191(3):933–8.
Hansen, S., Clark, S. L., Foster, J. C., Active pushing versus passive fetal descent in the second stage of labor: A randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2002. Jan; 99(1):29–34.
Carmona, F., Martinez-Roman, S., Manau, D., Cararach, V., Iglesias, X., Immediate maternal and neonatal effects of low-forceps delivery according to the new criteria of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists compared with spontaneous vaginal delivery in term pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995. Jul; 173(1): 55–9.
Yancey, M., Herpolsheimer, A., Jordan, G. D., Benson, W. L., Brady, K., Maternal and neonatal effects of outlet forceps delivery compared with spontaneous vaginal delivery in term pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1991. Oct; 78(4):646–50.
Niswander, K., Gordon, M., Safety of the low-forceps operation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1973. 117:619–630.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG Practice Bulletin: Number 70, December, 2005: Intrapartum fetal heart rate moni- toring.
Ross, M., Devoe, L. D., Rosen, K. G., ST-segment analysis of the fetal electrocardiogram improves fetal heart rate tracing interpretation and clinical decision making. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2004. Mar; 15(3):181–5.
McNamara, D., C-section numbers unaffected by fetal pulse oximetry: Neonatal outcomes also failed to improve. Ob Gyn News 2006. Feb 15; 41(4): 1, 8.
Bloom, S., Casey, B. M., Schaffer, J. I., McIntire, D. D., Leveno, K. J., A randomized trial of coached versus uncoached maternal pushing during the second stage of labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006. Jan; 194(1):10–3.
Wood, C., Ng, K. H., Hounslaw, D., Benning, H., Time: An important variable in normal delivery. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1973. Apr; 80(4): 295–300.
Das, K., Obstetric Forceps: Its History and Evolution. 1929, Calcutta: The Art Press.Google Scholar
Dill, L., The Obstetrical Forceps. 1953, Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.Google Scholar
Laufe, L., Obstetric Forceps. 1968, New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Dennon, E., Forceps Deliveries. 1964, Philadelphia: FA Davis.Google Scholar
Dennen, P., Dennen's Forceps Deliveries, Third Edition. 1989, Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.Google Scholar
Shute, W., An obstetrical forceps which uses new principle of parallelism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1959. 77: 442–6.
Laufe, L. E., A new divergent outlet forceps. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1968. Jun 15; 101(4):509–12.
Shute, W., Management of shoulder dystocia with the Shute parallel forceps. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1962. Oct 1; 84:936–9.
Putta, L., Spencer, J. P., Assisted vaginal delivery using the vacuum extractor. Am Fam Phys 2000. Sept; 62(6):1316–20.
Vacca, A., Vacuum-assisted delivery: Improving patient outcomes and protecting yourself against litigation. Obstet Manage 2004. Feb; Suppl:S1–S12.
Mazouni, C., Bretelle, F., Collette, E., Heckenroth, H., Bonnier, P., Gamerre, M., Maternal and neonatal morbidity after first vaginal delivery using Thierry's spatulas. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2005. Oct; 45(5):405–9.
Elliott, B., Ridgway, L. F., Berkus, M. D., Newton, E. R., Peairs, W., The development and testing of new instruments for operative vaginal delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992. Oct; 167(4 Pt 1):1121–4.
Murless, B., Lower segment cesarean section: A new head extractor? Br Med J 1945. 1:1234.
O'Grady, J., Gimovsky, M. L., McIlhargie, C. J., Vacuum Extraction in Modern Obstetric Practice. 1995, New York: Parthenon Publishing Group Inc.Google Scholar
Bashore, R., Phillips, W. H. Jr, Brinkman, C. R. 3rd, A comparison of the morbidity of midforceps and cesarean delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990. Jun; 162(6):1428–35.
Robertson, P., Laros, R. K. Jr., Zhao, R. L., Neonatal and maternal outcome in low-pelvic and midpelvic operative deliveries. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990. Jun; 162(6):1436–42.
Hagadorn-Freathy, A., Yeomans, E. R., Hankins, G. D., Validation of the 1988 ACOG forceps classification system. Obstet Gynecol 1991. Mar; 77(3):356–60.
O'Grady, J., Gimovsky, M. L., McIlhargie, C. J., Operative Obstetrics. 1995, Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
O'Driscoll, K., Meagher, D., Boylan, P., Active Management of Labor, Third edition. 1993, Ayelbury, England: Mosby-Year Book Europe, Ltd.Google Scholar
Philpott, R., The recognition of cephalopelvic disproportion. Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1982. 9:609–24.
Lau, T., Leung, T. N., Repeat instrumental delivery: How high is the risk? Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1998. Feb; 38(1):31–3.
Senecal, J., Xiong, X., Fraser, W. D., PEOPLE (Pushing Early or Pushing Late with Epidural Study Group), Effect of fetal position on second-stage duration and labor outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2005. Apr; 105(4):763–72.
Blackadar, C., Viera, A. J., A retrospective review of performance and utility of routine clinical pelvimetry. Fam Med 2004. 36(7):505–7.
Pattinson, R., Farrell, E., Pelvimetry for fetal cephalic presentations at or near term (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004 (Issue 2).
Ferguson, J. N., Newberry, Y. G., DeAngelis, G. A., Finnerty, J. J., Agarwal, S., Turkheimer, E., The fetal-pelvic index has minimal utility in predicting fetal-pelvic disproportion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998. Nov; 179(5):1186–92.
Morgan, M., Thurnau, G. R., Efficacy of the fetal-pelvic index in nulliparous women at high risk for fetal-pelvic disproportion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992. Mar; 166(3):810–4.
Sporri, S., Hanggi, W., Braghetti, A., Vock, P., Schneider, H., Pelvimetry by magnetic resonance imaging as a diagnostic tool to evaluate dystocia. Obstet Gynecol 1997. Jun; 97(6):902–8.
Sporri, S., Thoeny, H. C., Raio, L., Lachat, R., Vock, P., Schneider, H., MR imaging pelvimetry: A useful adjunct in the treatment of women at risk for dystocia? Am J Roentgenol 2002. Jul; 179(1):137–44.
March, M., Adair, C. D., Veille, J. C., Burrus, D. R., The modified Mueller-Hillis maneuver in predicting abnormalities in second-stage labor. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1996. Nov; 55(2):105–9.
Crichton, D., A reliable method of establishing the level of the fetal head in obstetrics. S Afr Med J 1974. Apr 17; 48(18):784–7.
Vacca, A., The ‘sacral hand wedge’: A cause of arrest of descent of the fetal head during vacuum-assisted delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2002. Sept; 109(9):1063–5.
Vacca, A., Handbook of Vacuum Extraction in Obstetric Practice. 1992, London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Zahalka, S., Sadan, O., Malinger, G., Liberati, M., Boaz, M., Glezerman, M., Rotmensch, S., Comparison of transvaginal sonography with digital examination and transabdominal sonography for the determination of fetal head position in the second stage of labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005. Aug; 193(2):381–6.
Weber, T., Hertzberg, B. S., Bowie, J. D., Transperineal US: Alternative technique to improve visualization of the presenting fetal part. Radiology 1991. Jun; 179(3):747–50.
Akmal, S., Tsoi, E., Nicolaides, K. H., Intrapartum sonography to determine fetal occipital position: Interobserver agreement. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2004. Sept; 24(4):421–4.
Akmal, S., Tsoi, E., Kametas, N., Howard, R., Nicolaides, K. H., Intrapartum sonography to determine fetal head position. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2002. Sept; 12(2):172–7.
Souka, A., Haritos, T., Basayiannis, K., Noikokyri, N., Antsaklis, A., Intrapartum ultrasound for the examination of the fetal head position in normal and obstructed labor. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003. Jan; 13(1):59–63.
Sherer, D., Miodovnik, M., Bradley, K. S., Langer, O., Intrapartum fetal head position I: Comparison between transvaginal digital examination and transabdominal ultrasound assessment during the active stage of labor. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2002. Mar; 19(3):258–63.
Dupuis, O., Ruimark, S., Corinne, D., Simone, T., Andre, D., Rene-Charles, R., Fetal head position during the second stage of labor: Comparison of digital vaginal examination and transabdominal ultrasonographic examination. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2005. Dec 1; 123(2):193–7.
Dietz, H., Lanzarone, V., Measuring engagement of the fetal head: Validity and reproducibility of a new ultrasound technique. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2005. Feb; 25(2):165–8.
Nahum, G. G. Estimation of fetal weight. Emedi- cine. http//:www.imedicine.com, p. 1–61.
Towner, D., Castro, M. A., Eby-Wilkens, E., Effect of mode of delivery in nulliparous women on neonatal intracranial injury. N Engl J Med 1999. Dec 2; 341(23):1709–14.
Gardella, C., Taylor, M., Benedetti, T., Hitti, J., Critchlow, C., The effect of sequential use of vacuum and forceps for assisted vaginal delivery on neonatal and maternal outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001. Oct; 185(4):896–902.
Murphy, D., Liebling, R. E., Patel, R., Verity, L., Swingler, R., Cohort study of operative delivery in the second stage of labour and standard of obstetric care. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2003. Jun; 110(6):610–5.
Al-Kadri, H., Sabr, Y., Al-Saif, S., Abulaimoun, B., Ba'Aqeel, H., Saleh, A., Failed individual and sequential instrumental vaginal delivery: Contributing risk factors and maternal-neonatal complications. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2003. Jul; 82(7):642–8.
Ezenagu, L., Kakaria, R., Bofill, J. A., Sequential use of instruments at operative vaginal delivery: Is it safe? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999. Jun; 180(6 Pt 1):1446–9.
Ramin, S., Little, B., Gilstrap, L. C., Survey of operative vaginal delivery in North America in 1990. Obstet Gynecol 1993. Feb; 81(2):307–11.
McQuivey, R., Vacuum-assisted delivery: A review. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2004. Sept; 16(3): 171–80.
Laufe, L., Berkus, M. D., Assisted Vaginal Delivery: Obstetrical Forceps and Vacuum Extraction Techniques. 1992, New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
http://www.vaccareseacch.com.
rwn@clinical innovations.com: physician education workshop.
Cheong, Y., Abdullahi, H., Lashen, H., Fairlie, F. M., Can formal education and training improve the outcome of instrumental delivery? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004. Apr 15; 113(2):139–44.
Caughey, A., Sandberg, P. L., Zlatnik, M. G., Thiet, M. P., Parer, J. T., Laros, R. K. Jr., Forceps compared with vacuum. Obstet Gynecol 2005. Nov; 106(5):908–12.
Mollberg, M., Hagberg, H., Bager, B., Lilja, H., Ladfors, L., Risk factors for obstetric brachial plexus palsy among neonates delivered by vacuum extraction. Obstet Gynecol 2005. Nov; 106(5 Pt 1):913–8.
Robinson, J., Norwitz, E. R., Cohen, A. P., McElrath, T. F., Lieberman, E. S., Episiotomy, operative vaginal delivery, and significant perinatal trauma in nulliparous women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999. Nov; 181(5 Pt 1):1180–4.
Johanson, R., Menon, V. Vacuum extraction versus forceps for assisted vaginal delivery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2005.
Dierker, L. J., Rosen, M. G., Thompson, K., Debanne, S., Linn, P., The midforceps: Maternal and neonatal outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985. May 15; 152(2):176–82.
Cibils, L., Ringler, G. E., Evaluation of midforceps delivery as an alternative. J Perinat Med 1990. 18(1):5–11.
O'DriscollK, M. D. K, M. D., MacDonald, D., Geoghegan, F., Traumatic intracranial haemorrhage in firstborn infants and delivery with obstetric forceps. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981. Jun; 88(6):577–81.
Damron, D., Capeless, E. L., Operative vaginal delivery: A comparison of forceps and vacuum for success rate and risk of rectal sphincter injury. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004. Sept; 191(3):907–10.
Johnson, J., Figueroa, R, Garry, D., Immediate maternal and neonatal effects of forceps and vacuum-assisted deliveries. Obstet Gynecol 2004. Mar 103(3):513–8.
Thiery, M., Fetal hemorrhage following blood samplings and use of vacuum extractor [letter]. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979. May 15;134(2):231.
Roberts, I., Stone, M., Fetal hemorrhage: Complication of vacuum extractor after fetal blood sampling. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1978. Sept 1; 132(1):109.
Boehm, F., Vacuum extraction during cesarean section. South Med J 1985. Dec; 78(12):1502.
Walka, D., Schmid, B., Sinha, P., Veit, S., Lichtenegger, W., Nitroglycerin application during cesarean delivery: Plasma levels, fetal/maternal ratio of nitroglycerin, and effects in newborns. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000. Apr; 182(4):955–61.
Clark, K., Viscomi, C. M., Lowell, J., Chien, E. K., Nitroglycerin for relaxation to establish a fetal airway (EXIT procedure). Obstet Gynecol 2004. 103(5):113–15.
Liabsuetrakul, T., Choobun, T., Peeyananjaras, K. sri, Islam, M., Antibiotic prophylaxis for operative vaginal delivery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2004.
Lim, F., Holm, JP, Schuitemaker, NW, Jansen, FH, Hermans, J, Stepwise compared with rapid application of vacuum in ventouse extraction procedures. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997. Jan; 104(1):33–6.
Svenningsen, L., Birth progression and traction forces developed under vacuum extraction after slow or rapid application of suction. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1987. Oct; 26(2):105–12.
Malmström, T., The vacuum extractor: An obstetrical instrument and the parturiometer, a topographic device. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1957. 36(Suppl):7–87.
Malmström, T., Jansson, I., Use of vacuum extractor. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1965. 8:893–913.
Bofill, J. A., Rust, O. A., Schorr, S. J., Brown, R. C., Roberts, W. E., Morrison, J. C., A randomized trial of two vacuum extraction techniques. Obstet Gynecol 1997. May; 89(5 Pt 1):758–62.
O'Grady, J., Pope, C. S., Patel, S. S., Vacuum extraction in modern obstetric practice: A review and critique. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2000. 12:475–480.
Bofill, J., Rust, O. A., Devidas, M, Roberts, W. E., Morrison, J. C., Martin, J. N. Jr., Neonatal cephalohematoma from vacuum extraction. J Reprod Med 1997. Sept; 42(9):565–9.
Bird, G., The use of the vacuum extractor. Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1982. 9:641–61.
Dennen, E., Forceps Deliveries. 1964, Philadelphia: FA Davis.Google Scholar
Vacca, A., Vacuum-assisted delivery. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2002. Feb; 16(1):17–30.
Sjostedt, J., The vacuum extractor and forceps in obstetrics: A clinical study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1967. 46(Suppl 10):3–208.
Bayer-Zwirello, L., O'Grady, J. P., Patel, S. S., ACOG's 1999 VBAC guidelines: A survey of western Massachusetts obstetric services. Obstet Gynecol 2000. 95(4 Suppl):S 73.
Traub, A., Morrow, R. J., Ritchie, J. W., Dornan, K. J., A continuing use for Kielland's forceps? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1984. Sept; 91(9):894–8.
Healy, D., Quinn, M. A., Pepperell, R. J., Rotational delivery of the fetus: Kielland's forceps and two other methods compared. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1982. Jul; 89(7):501–6.
Krivak, T., Drewes, P., Horowitz, G. M., Kielland vs. nonrotational forceps for the second stage. J Reprod Med 1999. Jun; 44(6):511–7.
Fitzpatrick, M., O'Herlihy, C., The effects of labour and delivery on the pelvic floor. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2001. Feb; 15(1):63–79.
Wu, J., Williams, K. S., Hundley, A. F., Connolly, A. M., Visco, A. G., Occiput posterior fetal head position increases the risk of anal sphincter injury in vacuum-assisted deliveries. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005. Aug; 193(2):525–9.
To, W., Li, I. C., Occipital posterior and occipital transverse positions: Reappraisal of the obstetric risks. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2000. Aug; 40(3): 275–9.
Benavides, L., Wu, J. M., Hundley, A. F., Ivester, T. S., Visco, A. G., The impact of occiput posterior fetal head position on the risk of anal sphincter injury in forceps-assisted vaginal deliveries. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005. May; 192(5):1702–6.
Gardberg, M., Laakkonen, E., Salevaara, M., Intrapartum sonography and persistent occiput posterior position: A study of 408 deliveries. Obstet Gynecol 1998. May; 91(5 Pt 1):746–9.
Caldwell, W., Moloy, H. C., Espito, D' D. A., A roentgenologic study of the mechanism of engagement of the fetal head. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1934. 28:824.
Akmal, S. K. N., Tsoi, E., Howard, R., Nicolaides, K. H., Ultrasonographic occiput position in early labour in the prediction of caesarean section. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2004. Jun; 111(6): 532–6.
Kariminia, A., Chamberlain, M. E., Keogh, J., Shea, A., Randomised controlled trial of effect of hands and knees posturing on incidence of occiput posterior position at birth. Br Med J 2004. Feb 28; 328; Epub 2004. Jan; 26(7438):490.
Ponkey, S. E., Cohen, A. P., Heffner, L. J., Lieberman, E., Persistent fetal occiput posterior position: Obstetric outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 2003. May; 101(5 Pt 1):915–20.
Gardberg, M., Tuppurainen, M., Persistent occiput posterior presentation – a clinical problem. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1994. Jan; 73(1):45–7.
Sizer, A., Nirmal, D. M., Occipitoposterior position: Associated factors and obstetric outcome in nulliparas. Obstet Gynecol 2000. 96:749–752.
Fitzpatrick, M., McQuillan, K., O'Herlihy, C., Influence of persistent occiput posterior position on delivery outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2001. Dec; 98(6):1027–31.
Akmal, S., Tsoi, E., Kametas, N., Howard, R., Nicolaides, K. H., Investigation of occiput posterior delivery by intrapartum sonography. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2004. Sept; 24(4):425–8.
Ingemarsson, E., Ingemarsson, I., Solum, T., Westgren, M., Influence of occiput posterior position on the fetal heart rate pattern. Obstet Gynecol 1980. Mar; 55(3):301–4.
Pearl, M., Roberts, J. M., Laros, R. K., Hurd, W. W., Vaginal delivery from the persistent occiput posterior position: Influence on maternal and neonatal morbidity. J Reprod Med 1993. Dec; 38(12):955–61.
Turcot, L., Marcoux, S., Fraser, W. D., Multivariate analysis of risk factors for operative delivery in nulliparous women. Canadian Early Amniotomy Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997. Feb; 176(2): 395–402.
Lieberman, E., Davidson, K., Lee-Parritz, A., Shearer, E., Changes in fetal position during labor and their association with epidural analgesia. Obstet Gynecol 2005. 105:974–82.
Yancey, M., Zhang, J., Schweitzer, D. L., Schwarz, J., Klebanoff, M. A., Epidural analgesia and fetal head malposition at vaginal delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2001. Apr; 97(4):608–12.
Puddicombe, J., Maternal posture for correction of posterior fetal position. J Int Coll Surg 1955. Jan; 23(1 Pt 1):73–7.
Hofmeyr, G., Kulier, R. Hands and knees posture in late pregnancy or labour for fetal malposition (lateral or posterior). Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2005.
Menticoglou, S., Perlman, M., Manning, F. A., High cervical spinal cord injury in neonates delivered with forceps: Report of 15 cases. Obstet Gynecol 1995. Oct; 86(4 Pt 1):589–94.
Milner, R., Neonatal mortality of breech deliveries with and without forceps to the aftercoming head. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975. Oct 8; 2(10):893–913.
Piper, E., Bachman, C., The prevention of fetal injuries in breech deliveries. JAMA 1929. 92:217–21.
Illingworth, R., Why blame the obstetrician? A review. Br Med J 1979. 1:797–801.
Illingworth, R., A paediatrician asks – why is it called birth injury? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985. 92:122–30.
Nelson, K. B., Ellenberg, J. H., Antecedents of cerebral palsy: Multivariate analysis of risk. N Engl J Med 1986. Jul 10; 315(2):81–6.
Nelson, K., Grether, J. K., Potentially asphyxiating conditions and spastic cerebral palsy in infants of normal birth weight. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998. Aug; 179(2):507–13.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and The American Academy of Pediatrics: Neonatal Encephalopathy and Cerebral Palsy: Defining the Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology. 2003, Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.
Phelan, J., Martin, G. I., Korst, L. M., Birth asphyxia and cerebral palsy. Clin Perinatol 2005. Mar; 31(1):1–17.
O'Mahony, F., Settatree, R., Platt, C., Johanson, R., Review of singleton fetal and neonatal deaths associated with cranial trauma and cephalic delivery during a national intrapartum-related confidential enquiry. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2005. May; 112(5):619–26.
McLeod, N., Gilmour, D. T., Joseph, K. S., Farrell, S. A., Luther, E. R., Trends in major risk factors for anal sphincter lacerations: A 10-year study. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2003. Jul; 25(7):586–93.
Raio, L., Ghezzi, F., DiNaro, E., Buttarelli, M., Franchi, M., Durig, P., Bruhwiler, H., Perinatal outcome of fetuses with a birth weight greater than 4500 g: An analysis of 3356 cases. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003. Aug 15; 109(2): 160–5.
Oral, E., Cagdas, A., Gezer, A., Kaleli, S., Aydinli, K., Ocer, F., Perinatal and maternal outcomes of fetal macrosomia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2001. Dec 1; 99(2):167–71.
Boulet, S., Alexander, G. R., Salihu, H. M., Pass, M., Macrosomic births in the United States: Determinants, outcomes, and proposed grades of risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003. May; 188(5):1372–8.
Okun, N., Verma, A., Mitchell, B. F., Flowerdew, G., Relative importance of maternal constitutional factors and glucose intolerance of pregnancy in the development of newborn macrosomia. J Matern Fetal Med 1997. Sept–Oct; 6(5):285–90.
Acker, D., Gregory, K. D., Sachs, B. P., Friedman, E. A., Risk factors for Erb-Duchenne palsy. Obstet Gynecol 1988. Mar; 71(3 Pt 1):389–92.
Watson, W., Soisson, A. P., Harlass, F. E., Estimated weight of the term fetus: Accuracy of ultrasound vs. clinical examination. J Reprod Med 1988. Apr; 33(4):369–71.
Chauchan, S., Lutton, P. M., Bailey, K. J., Guerrieri, J. P., Morrison, J. C., Intrapartum clinical, sonographic, and parous patients' estimates of newborn birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 1992. Jun; 79(6): 956–8.
Chauhan, S., Lutton, T. C., Bailey, K. J., Morrison, J. C., Intrapartum prediction of birth weight: Clinical versus sonographic estimation based on femur length alone. Obstet Gynecol 1993. May; 81(5 Pt 1):695–7.
Chauhan, S., Sullivan, C. A., Lutton, T. C., Magann, E. R., Morrison, J. C., Parous patients' estimate of birth weight in postterm pregnancy. J Perinatol, 1995. May–Jun; 15(3):192–4.
Chauhan, S., Cowan, B. D., Magann, E. F., Bradford, T. H., Roberts, W. E., Morrison, J. C., Intrapartum detection of a macrosomic fetus: Clinical versus 8 sonographic models. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1995. Aug; 35(3):266–70.
Sherman, D., Arieli, S., Tovbin, J., Siegel, G., Caspi, E., Bukovsky, I., A comparison of clinical and ultrasonic estimation of fetal weight. Obstet Gynecol 1998. Feb; 91(2):212–7.
Chauchan, S., Hendrix, N. W., Magann, E. F., Morrison, J. P., Kenney, S. P., Devoe, L. D., Limitations of clinical and sonographic estimates of birth weight: Experience with 1034 parturients. Obstet Gynecol 1998. Jan; 91(1):72–7.
Herrero, R., Fitzsimmons, J., Estimated fetal weight: Maternal vs. physician estimate. J Reprod Med 1999. Aug; 44(8):674–8.
Hendrix, N., Grady, C. S., Chauhan, S. P., Clinical vs. sonographic estimate of birth weight in term parturients: A randomized clinical trial. J Reprod Med 2000. Apr; 45(4):317–22.
Rouse, D. J., Owen, J., Goldenberg, R. L., Cliver, S. P., The effectiveness and costs of elective cesarean delivery for fetal macrosomia diagnosed by ultrasound. JAMA 1996. Nov 13; 276(18):1480–6.
Ben-Haroush, A., Yogev, Y., Bar, J., Mashiach, R., Kaplan, B., Hod, M., Meizner, I., Accuracy of sonographically estimated fetal weight in 840 women with different pregnancy complications prior to induction of labor. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2004. Feb; 23(2):172–6.
Chauhan, S., Hendrix, N. W., Magann, E. F., Morrison, J. C., Kenney, S. P., Devoe, L. D., Limitations of clinical and sonographic estimates of birth weight: Experience with 1034 parturients. Obstet Gynecol 1998. Jan; 91(1):72–7.
Smith, G., Smith, M. F., McNay, M. B., Fleming, J. E., The relation between fetal abdominal circumference and birthweight: Findings in 3512 pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997. Feb; 104(2):186–90.
Kolderup, L., Laros, R. K. Jr., Musci, T. J., Incidence of persistent birth injury in macrosomic infants: Association with mode of delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997. Jul; 177(1):37–41.
Carroli, G., Belizan, J. Episiotomy for vaginal birth (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 1999.
Weber, A. M., Meyn, L., Episiotomy use in the United States, 1979–1997. Obstet Gynecol 2002. Dec; 100(6):1177–82.
Youssef, R., Ramalingam, U., Macleod, M., Murphy, D. J., Cohort study of maternal and neonatal morbidity in relation to use of episiotomy at instrumental vaginal delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2005. Jul; 112(7):941–5.
Eason, E., Labrecque, M., Wells, G., Feldman, P., Preventing perinatal trauma during childbirth: A systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2000. Mar; 95 (3):464–71.
Sheiner, E., Levy, A., Walfisch, A., Hallak, M., Mazor, M., Third-degree perineal tears in a university medical center where midline episiotomies are not performed. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2005. Apr; 271(4):307–10.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG Practice Bulletin: Number 10, November, 1999: Induction of Labor.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG Practice Bulletin Number 71, April 2006: Episiotomy. Obstet Gynecol 2006. Apr; 107 (4):957–61.
Kilani, R., Wetmore, J., Neonatal subgaleal hematoma: Presentation and outcome – radiological findings and factors associated with mortality. Am J Perinatol 2006. Jan; 23(1):41–8.
Boo, N., Subaponeurotic haemorrhage in Malaysian neonates. Singapore Med J 1990. Jun; 31(3):207–10.
Govaert, P., Defoort, P., Wigglesworth, J. S., Cranial haemorrhage in the term newborn infant. Clin Dev Med 1993. 129:1–223.
Macleod, C., O'Neill, C., Vacuum assisted delivery – the need for caution. Ir Med J 2003. May; 96(5):147–8.
Revah, A., Ezra, Y., Farine, D., Ritchie, K., Failed trial of vacuum or forceps – maternal and fetal outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997. Jan; 176(1 Pt 1): 200–4.
Bahl, R., Strachan, B., Murphy, D. J., Outcome of subsequent pregnancy three years after previous operative delivery in the second stage of labour: Cohort study. Br Med J 2004. Feb 7; 328(7435): 311; Epub 2004 Jan 14.
Murphy, D., Stirrat, G. M., Heron, J., ALSPAC Study Team, The relationship between caesarean section and subfertility in a population-based sample of 14 541 pregnancies. Hum Reprod 2002. Jul; 17(7):1914–7.Google Scholar
Lowe, B., Fear of failure: A place for the trial of instrumental delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987. Jan; 94(1):60–6.
Sultan, A., Kamm, M. A., Hudson, C. N., Thomas, J. M., Bartram, C. I., Anal-sphincter disruption during vaginal delivery. N Engl J Med 1993. Dec 23; 329(26):1905–11.
Buschbaum, G. M., Chin, M., Glantz, C., Guzick, D., Prevalence of urinary incontinence and associated risk factors in a cohort of nuns. Obstet Gynecol 2002. Aug; 100(2):226–9.
Wei, J., DeLancey, J. O., Functional anatomy of the pelvic floor and lower urinary tract. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2004. Mar; 47(1):3–17.
Christianson, L., Bovbjerg, V. E., McDavitt, E. C., Hullfish, K. L., Risk factors for perineal injury during delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003. Jul; 189(1): 225–60.
Murphy, D., Liebling, R. E., Verity, L., Swingler, R., Patel, R., Early maternal and neonatal morbidity associated with operative delivery in second stage of labour: A cohort study. Lancet 2001. Oct 13; 358 (9289):1203–7.
Sheiner, E., Shoham-Vardi, I., Silberstein, T., Hallak, T., Katz, M., Mazor, M., Failed vacuum extraction: Maternal risk factors and pregnancy outcome. J Reprod Med 2001. Sept; 46(9):819–24.
Gopoalani, S., Bennett, K., Critchlow, C., Factors predictive of failed operative vaginal delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004. Sept; 191(3):896–902.
Mola, G., Amoa, A. B., Edilyong, J., Factors associated with success or failure in trials of vacuum extraction. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2002. Feb; 42(1):35–9.
Saropala, N., Chaturachinda, K., Failed instrumental delivery: Ramathibodi Hospital, 1980–1988. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1991. Nov; 36(3):203–7.
Lansbrey, A., Orchard, C. D., Crichton, D., A study of the relative merits and scope for vacuum extraction as opposed to forceps delivery. S Afr J Obstet Gynaecol 1964. 2(1).
Ehlers, N., Jensen, I. K., Hansen, K. B., Retinal haemorrhages in the newborn: Comparison of delivery by forceps and by vacuum extractor. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh) 1974. 52:73–82.
Vacca, A., Grant, A., Wyatt, G., Chalmers, I., Portsmouth operative delivery trial: A comparison of vacuum extractor and forceps delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983. Dec; 90(12):1107–12.
Boyd, M., Usher, R. H., McLean, F. H., Normal, B. E., Failed forceps. Obstet Gynecol 1986. Dec; 68(6):779–83.
Johanson, R., Rice, C., Doyle, M., Arthur, J., Anyanwu, L., Ibrahim, J., Warwick, A., Redman, C. W., O'Brien, P. M., A randomised prospective study comparing the new vacuum extractor policy with forceps delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993. Jun; 100(6):524–30.
McBride, W., Black, B. P., Brown, C. J., Dolby, R. M., Murray, A. D., Thomas, D. B., Method of delivery and developmental outcome at five years of age. Med J Aust 1979. Apr 21; 1(8):301–4.
DeCosta, C., The vacuum extractor – a re-appraisal. Ir J Med Sci 1982. Dec 12; 151(4):105–8.
Friedman, E., Sachtelben-Murray, M. R., Darouge, D., Neff, R. K., Long-term effects of labor and delivery on offspring: A matched-pair analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984. Dec 15; 150(8):941–5.
Nilsen, S., Boys born by forceps and vacuum extraction at 18 years of age. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1984. 63(6):549–54.
Dierker, L. J., Rosen, M. G., Thompson, K., Lynn, P., Midforceps deliveries: Long-term outcome of infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986. Apr; 154(4):764–8.
Seidman, D., Laor, A., Gale, R., Stevenson, D. K., Mashiach, S., Danon, Y. L., Long-term effects of vacuum and forceps deliveries. Lancet 1991. Jun 29; 337(8757):1583–5.
Wesley, B. D., Berg, B. J., Reece, E. A., The effect of forceps delivery on cognitive development. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993. Nov; 169(5):1091–5.
Ngan, H., Miu, P., Ko, L., Ma, H. K., Long -term neurological sequelae following vacuum extractor delivery. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1990. Mar; 30(2):111–4.
Bowes, W., Bowes, C., Current role of the midforceps operation. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1980. Jun; 23(2):549–57.
Cardozo, L., Gibb, D. M., Studd, J. W., Cooper, D. J., Should we abandon Keilland's forceps. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed), 1983. Jul 30; 287(6388):315–7.
Gilstrap, L. C., Hauth, J. C., Schiano, S., Connor, K. D., Neonatal acidosis and method of delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1984. May; 63(5):681–5.
Broman, S., Nichols, P. L., Kennedy, W. A., Preschool IQ: Prenatal and Early Developmental Correlates. 1975, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (John Wiley & Sons).Google Scholar
Bahl, R., Patel, R. R., Swingler, R., Ellis, M., Murphy, D. J., Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years after operative delivery in the second stage of labor: A cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007. Aug; 197(2):147.e1–6.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×