Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T07:24:36.508Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 18 - Infectious Disorders of the Lower Gastrointestinal Tract

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 June 2020

By
Nicole C. Panarelli
Edited by
Roger M. Feakins
Roger M. Feakins
Affiliation:
Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
Get access

Summary

The lower gastrointestinal tract consists of ileum, vermiform appendix, colon, and rectum. The main epithelial cell types are absorptive cells, goblet cells, Paneth cells, and endocrine cells. Structurally the ileum resembles the duodenum, and includes villi and crypts. Gut-associated lymphoid tissue plays an important role in immune defence and has focal and diffuse elements in the small bowel. Lymphoid tissue is particularly prominent in the most distal part of the ileum. The mucosa of the large bowel is less complex than that of the small bowel, with parallel crypts and a smooth surface. In the normal colorectal mucosa, the density of plasma cells is highest in the upper one third and lowest in the lower one third. Eosinophilia in the ileum and large bowel is difficult to diagnose unless numbers are greatly increased. There may be a few neutrophils in the normal lamina propria but intraepithelial neutrophils are very infrequent. Apoptosis is a normal finding but the number of well-developed crypt epithelial cell apoptosis should be small. The intraepithelial lymphocyte count in the ileum is 0–9 per 100 surface epithelial cells and in the colon 0–5 per 100. Knowledge of the range of normality is important and helps pathologists to avoid overdiagnosis of inflammatory changes and of neoplasia.

Keywords

histologyanatomyileumcolonrectumepitheliuminflammatory cell
Type
Chapter
Information
Non-Neoplastic Pathology of the Gastrointestinal Tract
A Practical Guide to Biopsy Diagnosis
 , pp. 260 - 286
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Surawicz, CM, Belic, L. Rectal biopsy helps to distinguish acute self-limited colitis from idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology. 1984;86(1):104–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, YM, Hung, YP, Huang, CF, et al. Cytomegalovirus disease in nonimmunocompromised, human immunodeficiency virus-negative adults with chronic kidney disease. J Microbiol Immunol Infect = Wei mian yu gan ran za zhi. 2014;47(4):345–9.Google Scholar
Cannon, MJ, Schmid, DS, Hyde, TB. Review of cytomegalovirus seroprevalence and demographic characteristics associated with infection. Rev Med Virol. 2010;20(4):202–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chetty, R, Roskell, DE. Cytomegalovirus infection in the gastrointestinal tract. J Clin Pathol. 1994;47(11):968–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kandiel, A, Lashner, B. Cytomegalovirus colitis complicating inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101(12):2857–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shah, R, Vaidya, G, Kalakonda, A, Manocha, D, Rawlins, S. Cytomegalovirus colitis mimicking rectal carcinoma in a young immunocompetent patient. ACG Case Rep J. 2015;2(3):165–7.Google Scholar
Kumar, NB, Nostrant, TT, Appelman, HD. The histopathologic spectrum of acute self-limited colitis (acute infectious-type colitis). Am J Surg Pathol. 1982;6(6):523–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills, AM, Guo, FP, Copland, AP, Pai, RK, Pinsky, BA. A comparison of CMV detection in gastrointestinal mucosal biopsies using immunohistochemistry and PCR performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue. Am J Surg Pathol. 2013;37(7):995–1000.Google Scholar
McCurdy, JD, Enders, FT, Jones, A, et al. Detection of cytomegalovirus in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: where to biopsy and how many biopsies? Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2015;21(12):2833–8.Google Scholar
Kambham, N, Vij, R, Cartwright, CA, Longacre, T. Cytomegalovirus infection in steroid-refractory ulcerative colitis: a case-control study. Am J Surg Pathol. 2004;28(3):365–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minami, M, Ohta, M, Ohkura, T, et al. Cytomegalovirus infection in severe ulcerative colitis patients undergoing continuous intravenous cyclosporine treatment in Japan. World J Gastroenterol. 2007;13(5):754–60.Google Scholar
Star, KV, Ho, VT, Wang, HH, Odze, RD. Histologic features in colon biopsies can discriminate mycophenolate from GVHD-induced colitis. Am J Surg Pathol. 2013;37(9):1319–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leen, AM, Rooney, CM. Adenovirus as an emerging pathogen in immunocompromised patients. Br J Haematol. 2005;128(2):135–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ukarapol, N, Khamrin, P, Khorana, J, Singhavejsakul, J, Damrongmanee, A, Maneekarn, N. Adenovirus infection: a potential risk for developing intussusception in pediatric patients. J Med Virol. 2016;88(11):1930–5.Google Scholar
Fox, JP, Brandt, CD, Wassermann, FE, et al. The virus watch program: a continuing surveillance of viral infections in metropolitan New York families. VI. Observations of adenovirus infections: virus excretion patterns, antibody response, efficiency of surveillance, patterns of infections, and relation to illness. Am J Epidemiol. 1969;89(1):25–50.Google Scholar
Bertheau, P, Parquet, N, Ferchal, F, Gluckman, E, Brocheriou, C. Fulminant adenovirus hepatitis after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1996;17(2):295–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Davis, D, Henslee, PJ, Markesbery, WR. Fatal adenovirus meningoencephalitis in a bone marrow transplant patient. Ann Neurol. 1988;23(4):385–9.Google Scholar
Runde, V, Ross, S, Trenschel, R, et al. Adenoviral infection after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT): report on 130 patients from a single SCT unit involved in a prospective multi center surveillance study. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2001;28(1):51–7.Google Scholar
Yan, Z, Nguyen, S, Poles, M, Melamed, J, Scholes, JV. Adenovirus colitis in human immunodeficiency virus infection: an underdiagnosed entity. Am J Surg Pathol. 1998;22(9):1101–6.Google Scholar
Workowski, KA, Berman, S, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2010. MMWR. Recomm Rep. 2010;59(RR-12):1–110.Google ScholarPubMed
Cone, MM, Whitlow, CB. Sexually transmitted and anorectal infectious diseases. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2013;42(4):877–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodell, SE, Quinn, TC, Mkrtichian, E, Schuffler, MD, Holmes, KK, Corey, L. Herpes simplex virus proctitis in homosexual men: clinical, sigmoidoscopic, and histopathological features. N Engl J Med. 1983;308(15):868–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Batman, PA, Kapembwa, MS, Belmonte, L, et al. HIV enteropathy: HAART reduces HIV-induced stem cell hyperproliferation and crypt hypertrophy to normal in jejunal mucosa. J Clin Pathol. 2014;67(1):14–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Batman, PA, Kapembwa, MS, Miller, AR, et al. HIV enteropathy: comparative morphometry of the jejunal mucosa of HIV infected patients resident in the United Kingdom and Uganda. Gut. 1998;43(3):350–5.Google Scholar
Batman, PA, Miller, AR, Forster, SM, Harris, JR, Pinching, AJ, Griffin, GE. Jejunal enteropathy associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection: quantitative histology. J Clin Pathol. 1989;42(3):275–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Janda, JM, Newton, AE, Bopp, CA. Vibriosis. Clin Lab Med. 2015;35(2):273–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pastore, G, Schiraldi, G, Fera, G, Sforza, E, Schiraldi, O. A bioptic study of gastrointestinal mucosa in cholera patients during an epidemic in southern Italy. Am J Dig Dis. 1976;21(8):613–17.Google Scholar
Shuangshoti, S, Reinprayoon, S. Pathologic changes of gut in non-01 Vibrio cholerae infection. J Med Assoc Thailand = Chotmaihet thangphaet. 1995;78(4):204–9.Google Scholar
Kirk, MD, Pires, SM, Black, RE, et al. World Health Organization estimates of the global and regional disease burden of 22 foodborne bacterial, protozoal, and viral diseases, 2010: a data synthesis. PLoS med. 2015;12(12):e1001921.Google Scholar
Ternhag, A, Torner, A, Svensson, A, Ekdahl, K, Giesecke, J. Short- and long-term effects of bacterial gastrointestinal infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14(1):143–8.Google Scholar
Keithlin, J, Sargeant, J, Thomas, MK, Fazil, A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the proportion of Campylobacter cases that develop chronic sequelae. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:1203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Man, SM, Zhang, L, Day, AS, Leach, ST, Lemberg, DA, Mitchell, H. Campylobacter concisus and other Campylobacter species in children with newly diagnosed Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2010;16(6):1008–16.Google Scholar
Schneider, EN, Havens, JM, Scott, MA, et al. Molecular diagnosis of Campylobacter jejuni infection in cases of focal active colitis. Am J Surg Pathol. 2006;30(6):782–5.Google Scholar
Blaser, MJ, Parsons, RB, Wang, WL. Acute colitis caused by Campylobacter fetus ss. jejuni. Gastroenterology. 1980;78(3):448–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Bottone, EJ. Yersinia enterocolitica: the charisma continues. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997;10(2):257–76.Google Scholar
Saebo, A, Lassen, J. Acute and chronic gastrointestinal manifestations associated with Yersinia enterocolitica infection: a Norwegian 10-year follow-up study on 458 hospitalized patients. Ann Surg. 1992;215(3):250–5.Google Scholar
Abdel-Haq, NM, Asmar, BI, Abuhammour, WM, Brown, WJ. Yersinia enterocolitica infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(10):954–8.Google Scholar
Adamkiewicz, TV, Berkovitch, M, Krishnan, C, Polsinelli, C, Kermack, D, Olivieri, NF. Infection due to Yersinia enterocolitica in a series of patients with beta-thalassemia: incidence and predisposing factors. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27(6):1362–6.Google Scholar
Gleason, TH, Patterson, SD. The pathology of Yersinia enterocolitica ileocolitis. Am J Surg Pathol. 1982;6(4):347–55.Google Scholar
El-Maraghi, NR, Mair, NS. The histopathology of enteric infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Am J Clin Pathol. 1979;71(6):631–9.Google Scholar
Lamps, LW, Madhusudhan, KT, Greenson, JK, et al. The role of Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in granulomatous appendicitis: a histologic and molecular study. Am J Surg Pathol.2001;25(4):508–15.Google Scholar
Tindall, BJ, Grimont, PA, Garrity, GM, Euzeby, JP. Nomenclature and taxonomy of the genus Salmonella. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2005;55(Pt 1):521–4.Google Scholar
Dougan, G, Baker, S. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and the pathogenesis of typhoid fever. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2014;68:317–36.Google Scholar
Khan, WA, Griffiths, JK, Bennish, ML. Gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal manifestations of childhood shigellosis in a region where all four species of Shigella are endemic. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(5):e64097.Google Scholar
Speelman, P, Kabir, I, Islam, M. Distribution and spread of colonic lesions in shigellosis: a colonoscopic study. J Infect Dis. 1984;150(6):899–903.Google Scholar
Khuroo, MS, Mahajan, R, Zargar, SA, et al. The colon in shigellosis: serial colonoscopic appearances in Shigella dysenteriae I. Endoscopy. 1990;22(1):35–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Islam, MM, Azad, AK, Bardhan, PK, Raqib, R, Islam, D. Pathology of shigellosis and its complications. Histopathology. 1994;24(1):65–71.Google Scholar
Johnson, KE, Thorpe, CM, Sears, CL. The emerging clinical importance of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(12):1587–95.Google Scholar
Isidean, SD, Riddle, MS, Savarino, SJ, Porter, CK. A systematic review of ETEC epidemiology focusing on colonization factor and toxin expression. Vaccine. 2011;29(37):6167–78.Google Scholar
Wong, AR, Pearson, JS, Bright, MD, et al. Enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli: even more subversive elements. Mol Microbiol. 2011;80(6):1420–38.Google Scholar
Mathewson, JJ, Johnson, PC, DuPont, HL, et al. A newly recognized cause of travelers’ diarrhea: enteroadherent Escherichia coli. J Infect Dis. 1985;151(3):471–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svenungsson, B, Lagergren, A, Ekwall, E, et al. Enteropathogens in adult patients with diarrhea and healthy control subjects: a 1-year prospective study in a Swedish clinic for infectious diseases. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(5):770–8.Google Scholar
Andrade, JA, Freymuller, E, Fagundes-Neto, U. Adherence of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli to the ileal and colonic mucosa: an in vitro study utilizing the scanning electron microscopy. Arquivos Gastroenterol. 2011;48(3):199–204.Google Scholar
Tarr, PI, Gordon, CA, Chandler, WL. Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli and haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Lancet. 2005;365(9464):1073–86.Google Scholar
Lynn, RM, O’Brien, SJ, Taylor, CM, et al. Childhood hemolytic uremic syndrome, United Kingdom and Ireland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(4):590–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffin, PM, Olmstead, LC, Petras, RE. Escherichia coli O157:H7-associated colitis: a clinical and histological study of 11 cases. Gastroenterology. 1990;99(1):142–9.Google Scholar
Kelly, J, Oryshak, A, Wenetsek, M, Grabiec, J, Handy, S. The colonic pathology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection. Am J Surg Pathol. 1990;14(1):87–92.Google Scholar
Hogenauer, C, Langner, C, Beubler, E, et al. Klebsiella oxytoca as a causative organism of antibiotic-associated hemorrhagic colitis. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(23):2418–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sachak, T, Arnold, MA, Naini, BV, et al. Neutropenic enterocolitis: new insights into a deadly entity. Am J Surg Pathol. 2015;39(12):1635–42.Google Scholar
Murrell, TG, Roth, L. Necrotizing jejunitis: a newly discovered disease in the highlands of New Guinea. Med J Australia. 1963;50(1):61–9.Google Scholar
Cooke, R. The pathology of pig bel. Papua New Guinea Med J. 1979;22(1):35–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Severin, WP, de la Fuente, AA, Stringer, MF. Clostridium perfringens type C causing necrotising enteritis. J Clin Pathol. 1984;37(8):942–4.Google Scholar
Watson, DA, Andrew, JH, Banting, S, Mackay, JR, Stillwell, RG, Merrett, M. Pig-bel but no pig: enteritis necroticans acquired in Australia. Med J Austral. 1991;155(1):47–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, LE, Diekmann-Guiroy, B, McNamee, W, Java, DJ Jr., Weiss, SM. Enteritis necroticans with midgut necrosis caused by Clostridium perfringens. Arch Surg. 1994;129(5):557–60.Google Scholar
Farrant, JM, Traill, Z, Conlon, C, et al. Pigbel-like syndrome in a vegetarian in Oxford. Gut. 1996;39(2):336–7.Google Scholar
Petrillo, TM, Beck-Sague, CM, Songer, JG, et al. Enteritis necroticans (pigbel) in a diabetic child. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(17):1250–3.Google Scholar
Gui, L, Subramony, C, Fratkin, J, Hughson, MD. Fatal enteritis necroticans (pigbel) in a diabetic adult. Mod Pathol. 2002;15(1):66–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, KH, Sheagren, JN, Freter, R, Weatherbee, L, Lyerly, D. Gnotobiotic models for study of the microbial ecology of Clostridium difficile and Escherichia coli. J Infect Dis. 1986;153(3):547–51.Google Scholar
Walker, AS, Eyre, DW, Wyllie, DH, et al. Characterisation of Clostridium difficile hospital ward-based transmission using extensive epidemiological data and molecular typing. PLoS Med. 2012;9(2):e1001172.Google Scholar
Clabots, CR, Johnson, S, Olson, MM, Peterson, LR, Gerding, DN. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile by hospitalized patients: evidence for colonized new admissions as a source of infection. J Infect Dis. 1992;166(3):561–7.Google Scholar
Freeman, J, Bauer, MP, Baines, SD, et al. The changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23(3):529–49.Google Scholar
Ananthakrishnan, AN. Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, risk factors and management. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;8(1):17–26.Google Scholar
Yanai, H, Nguyen, GC, Yun, L, et al. Practice of gastroenterologists in treating flaring inflammatory bowel disease patients with Clostridium difficile: antibiotics alone or combined antibiotics/immunomodulators? Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2011;17(7):1540–6.Google Scholar
McCollum, DL, Rodriguez, JM. Detection, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;10(6):581–92.Google Scholar
Bartlett, JG. Clinical practice: antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(5):334–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iliyasu, Z, Babashani, M. Prevalence and predictors of tuberculosis coinfection among HIV-seropositive patients attending the Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, northern Nigeria. J Epidemiol/Jpn Epidemiol Assoc. 2009;19(2):81–7.Google Scholar
Donoghue, HD, Holton, J. Intestinal tuberculosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2009;22(5):490–6.Google Scholar
de la Rua-Domenech, R. Human Mycobacterium bovis infection in the United Kingdom: incidence, risks, control measures and review of the zoonotic aspects of bovine tuberculosis. Tuberculosis. 2006;86(2):77–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amarapurkar, DN, Patel, ND, Rane, PS. Diagnosis of Crohn’s disease in India where tuberculosis is widely prevalent. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14(5):741–6.Google Scholar
Keane, J, Gershon, S, Wise, RP, et al. Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agent. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(15):1098–104.Google Scholar
Kisacik, B, Pamuk, ON, Onat, AM, et al. Characteristics predicting tuberculosis risk under tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors: report from a large multicenter cohort with high background prevalence. J Rheumatol. 2016;43(3):524–9.Google Scholar
Horsburgh, CR, Jr. Mycobacterium avium complex infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;324(19):1332–8.Google Scholar
Palella, FJ, Jr, Delaney, KM, Moorman, AC, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(13):853–60.Google Scholar
Cappell, MS, Gupta, A. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage due to gastrointestinal Mycobacterium avium intracellulare or esophageal candidiasis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1992;87(2):224–9.Google Scholar
Cappell, MS, Hassan, T, Rosenthal, S, Mascarenhas, M. Gastrointestinal obstruction due to Mycobacterium avium intracellulare associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 1992;87(12):1823–7.Google Scholar
Sun, HY, Chen, MY, Wu, MS, et al. Endoscopic appearance of GI mycobacteriosis caused by the Mycobacterium avium complex in a patient with AIDS: case report and review. Gastrointest Endosc. 2005;61(6):775–9.Google Scholar
Klatt, EC, Jensen, DF, Meyer, PR. Pathology of Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Hum Pathol. 1987;18(7):709–14.Google Scholar
Heffelfinger, JD, Swint, EB, Berman, SM, Weinstock, HS. Trends in primary and secondary syphilis among men who have sex with men in the United States. Am J Public Health. 2007;97(6):1076–83.Google Scholar
Arnold, CA, Limketkai, BN, Illei, PB, Montgomery, E, Voltaggio, L. Syphilitic and lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) proctocolitis: clues to a frequently missed diagnosis. Am J Surg Pathol. 2013;37(1):38–46.Google Scholar
Gopal, P, Shah, RB. Primary anal canal syphilis in men: the clinicopathologic spectrum of an easily overlooked diagnosis. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2015;139(9):1156–60.Google Scholar
Arnold, CA, Roth, R, Arsenescu, R, et al. Sexually transmitted infectious colitis vs inflammatory bowel disease: distinguishing features from a case-controlled study. Am J Clin Pathol. 2015;144(5):771–81.Google Scholar
Munshi, MA, Traub, RJ, Robertson, ID, Mikosza, AS, Hampson, DJ. Colonization and risk factors for Brachyspira aalborgi and Brachyspira pilosicoli in humans and dogs on tea estates in Assam, India. Epidemiol Infect. 2004;132(1):137–44.Google Scholar
Surawicz, CM, Roberts, PL, Rompalo, A, Quinn, TC, Holmes, KK, Stamm, WE. Intestinal spirochetosis in homosexual men. Am J Med. 1987;82(3 Spec No):587–92.Google Scholar
Carr, NJ, Mahajan, H, Tan, KL, Sharma, R. The histological features of intestinal spirochetosis in a series of 113 patients. Int J Surg Pathol. 2010;18(2):144–8.Google Scholar
Esteve, M, Salas, A, Fernandez-Banares, F, et al. Intestinal spirochetosis and chronic watery diarrhea: clinical and histological response to treatment and long-term follow up. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21(8):1326–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Omori, S, Mabe, K, Hatanaka, K, et al. Human intestinal spirochetosis is significantly associated with sessile serrated adenomas/polyps. Pathol Res Pract. 2014;210(7):440–3.Google Scholar
Walker, MM, Talley, NJ, Inganas, L, et al. Colonic spirochetosis is associated with colonic eosinophilia and irritable bowel syndrome in a general population in Sweden. Hum Pathol. 2015;46(2):277–83.Google Scholar
Tanahashi, J, Daa, T, Gamachi, A, et al. Human intestinal spirochetosis in Japan; its incidence, clinicopathologic features, and genotypic identification. Mod Pathol. 2008;21(2):76–84.Google Scholar
de Vries, HJ, Zingoni, A, Kreuter, A, et al. 2013 European guideline on the management of lymphogranuloma venereum. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2015;29(1):1–6.Google Scholar
Halioua, B, Bohbot, JM, Monfort, L, et al. Ano-rectal lymphogranuloma venereum: 22 cases reported in a sexually transmitted infections center in Paris. Eur J Dermatol. 2006;16(2):177–80.Google Scholar
Nieuwenhuis, RF, Ossewaarde, JM, Gotz, HM, et al. Resurgence of lymphogranuloma venereum in Western Europe: an outbreak of Chlamydia trachomatis serovar l2 proctitis in the Netherlands among men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(7):996–1003.Google Scholar
de Vrieze, NH, de Vries, HJ. Lymphogranuloma venereum among men who have sex with men: an epidemiological and clinical review. Exp Rev Anti-infect Ther. 2014;12(6):697–704.Google Scholar
de la Monte, SM, Hutchins, GM. Follicular proctocolitis and neuromatous hyperplasia with lymphogranuloma venereum. Hum Pathol. 1985;16(10):1025–32.Google Scholar
Gallegos, M, Bradly, D, Jakate, S, Keshavarzian, A. Lymphogranuloma venereum proctosigmoiditis is a mimicker of inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol. 2012;18(25):3317–21.Google Scholar
Patterson, TF, Kirkpatrick, WR, White, M, et al. Invasive aspergillosis: disease spectrum, treatment practices, and outcomes. I3 Aspergillus Study Group. Medicine. 2000;79(4):250–60.Google Scholar
Panackal, AA, Li, H, Kontoyiannis, DP, et al. Geoclimatic influences on invasive aspergillosis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(12):1588–97.Google Scholar
Eggimann, P, Chevrolet, JC, Starobinski, M, et al. Primary invasive aspergillosis of the digestive tract: report of two cases and review of the literature. Infection. 2006;34(6):333–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kazan, E, Maertens, J, Herbrecht, R, et al. A retrospective series of gut aspergillosis in haematology patients. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011;17(4):588–94.Google Scholar
Spellberg, B, Edwards, J Jr., Ibrahim, A. Novel perspectives on mucormycosis: pathophysiology, presentation, and management. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2005;18(3):556–69.Google Scholar
Lass-Florl, C. Zygomycosis: conventional laboratory diagnosis. Clin MicrobiolInfect. 2009;15(Suppl 5):60–5.Google Scholar
Petrikkos, G, Skiada, A, Lortholary, O, Roilides, E, Walsh, TJ, Kontoyiannis, DP. Epidemiology and clinical manifestations of mucormycosis. Clin Infect Dis.. 2012;54(Suppl 1):S23–34.Google Scholar
Agrawal, P, Saikia, U, Ramanaathan, S, Samujh, R. Neonatal small intestinal zygomyocosis misdiagnosed as intussusception in a two-day-old child with a review of the literature. Fetal Pediatr Pathol. 2013;32(6):418–21.Google Scholar
Okafor, JI, Testrake, D, Mushinsky, HR, Yangco, BG. A Basidiobolus sp. and its association with reptiles and amphibians in southern Florida. Sabouraudia. 1984;22(1):47–51.Google Scholar
Lyon, GM, Smilack, JD, Komatsu, KK, et al. Gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in Arizona: clinical and epidemiological characteristics and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32(10):1448–55.Google Scholar
Nemenqani, D, Yaqoob, N, Khoja, H, Al Saif, O, Amra, NK, Amr, SS. Gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis: an unusual fungal infection mimicking colon cancer. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2009;133(12):1938–42.Google Scholar
Colombo, AL, Tobon, A, Restrepo, A, Queiroz-Telles, F, Nucci, M. Epidemiology of endemic systemic fungal infections in Latin America. Med Mycol. 2011;49(8):785–98.Google Scholar
Horwath, MC, Fecher, RA, Deepe, GS Jr. Histoplasma capsulatum, lung infection and immunity. Future Microbiol. 2015;10(6):967–75.Google Scholar
Assi, MA, Sandid, MS, Baddour, LM, Roberts, GD, Walker, RC. Systemic histoplasmosis: a 15-year retrospective institutional review of 111 patients. Medicine. 2007;86(3):162–9.Google Scholar
Deng, Z, Ribas, JL, Gibson, DW, Connor, DH. Infections caused by Penicillium marneffei in China and Southeast Asia: review of eighteen published cases and report of four more Chinese cases. Rev Infect Dis. 1988;10(3):640–52.Google Scholar
Piehl, MR, Kaplan, RL, Haber, MH. Disseminated penicilliosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1988;112(12):1262–4.Google Scholar
Ko, CI, Hung, CC, Chen, MY, Hsueh, PR, Hsiao, CH, Wong, JM. Endoscopic diagnosis of intestinal penicilliosis marneffei: report of three cases and review of the literature. Gastrointest Endosc. 1999;50(1):111–14.Google Scholar
Deng, ZL, Connor, DH. Progressive disseminated penicilliosis caused by Penicillium marneffei. Report of eight cases and differentiation of the causative organism from Histoplasma capsulatum. Am J Clin Pathol. 1985;84(3):323–7.Google Scholar
Li, N, Wang, HH, Zhao, XJ, Sheng, JQ. Amebic colitis: colonoscopic appearance. Endoscopy. 2015;47(Suppl 1) UCTN:E145–6.Google Scholar
Den, Y, Kinoshita, J, Deshpande, GA, Hiraoka, E. Amoebiasis masquerading as inflammatory bowel disease. BMJ Case Rep. 2015 Nov 25;2015. DOI:10:1136/bcr-2015-212102.Google Scholar
Saha, K, Sengupta, M, Mitra, S, Ray, S. Amoeboma of colon mimicking colonic carcinoma. Trop Parasitol. 2014;4(2):122–4.Google Scholar
Moncayo, A. Chagas disease: current epidemiological trends after the interruption of vectorial and transfusional transmission in the Southern Cone countries. Memorias Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2003;98(5):577–91.Google Scholar
Iantorno, G, Bassotti, G, Kogan, Z, et al. The enteric nervous system in chagasic and idiopathic megacolon. Am J Surg Pathol. 2007;31(3):460–8.Google Scholar
da Silveira, AB, Lemos, EM, Adad, SJ, Correa-Oliveira, R, Furness, JB, D’Avila Reis, D. Megacolon in Chagas disease: a study of inflammatory cells, enteric nerves, and glial cells. Hum Pathol. 2007;38(8):1256–64.Google Scholar
Mansueto, P, Seidita, A, Vitale, G, Cascio, A. Leishmaniasis in travelers: a literature review. Trav Med Infect Dis. 2014;12(6 Pt A):563–81.Google Scholar
Ryan, U, Paparini, A, Monis, P, Hijjawi, N. It’s official – Cryptosporidium is a gregarine: What are the implications for the water industry? Water Res. 2016;105:305–13.Google Scholar
Van de Peer, Y, Ben Ali, A, Meyer, A. Microsporidia: accumulating molecular evidence that a group of amitochondriate and suspectedly primitive eukaryotes are just curious fungi. Gene. 2000;246(1–2):1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panarelli, NC, Yantiss, RK. Inflammatory and infectious manifestations of immunodeficiency in the gastrointestinal tract. Mod Pathol. 2018;31(6):844–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Current, WL, Reese, NC, Ernst, JV, Bailey, WS, Heyman, MB, Weinstein, WM. Human cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent and immunodeficient persons: studies of an outbreak and experimental transmission. N Engl J Med. 1983;308(21):1252–7.Google Scholar
Meinhardt, PL, Casemore, DP, Miller, KB. Epidemiologic aspects of human cryptosporidiosis and the role of waterborne transmission. Epidemiol Rev. 1996;18(2):118–36.Google Scholar
Genta, RM, Chappell, CL, White, AC Jr., Kimball, KT, Goodgame, RW. Duodenal morphology and intensity of infection in AIDS-related intestinal cryptosporidiosis. Gastroenterology. 1993;105(6):1769–75.Google Scholar
Cook, GC. Enterobius vermicularis infection. Gut. 1994;35(9):1159–62.Google Scholar
Hamdona, SM, Lubbad, AM, Al-Hindi, AI. Histopathological study of Enterobius vermicularis among appendicitis patients in Gaza strip, Palestine. J Parasit Dis. 2016;40(1):176–83.Google Scholar
Fleming, CA, Kearney, DE, Moriarty, P, Redmond, HP, Andrews, EJ. An evaluation of the relationship between Enterobius vermicularis infestation and acute appendicitis in a paediatric population: a retrospective cohort study. Int J Surg. 2015;18:154–8.Google Scholar
Fernandez-Flores, A, Dajil, S. Enterobiasis mimicking Crohn’s disease. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2004;23(4):149–50.Google Scholar
Bethony, J, Brooker, S, Albonico, M, et al. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: Ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm. Lancet. 2006;367(9521):1521–32.Google Scholar
Bundy, DA, Cooper, ES. Trichuris and trichuriasis in humans. Adv Parasitol. 1989;28:107–73.Google Scholar
Vadlamudi, RS, Chi, DS, Krishnaswamy, G. Intestinal strongyloidiasis and hyperinfection syndrome. Clin Mol Allergy: CMA. 2006;4:8.Google Scholar
Olsen, A, van Lieshout, L, Marti, H, et al. Strongyloidiasis: the most neglected of the neglected tropical diseases? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009;103(10):967–72.Google Scholar
Keiser, PB, Nutman, TB. Strongyloides stercoralis in the immunocompromised population. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(1):208–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porto, AF, Neva, FA, Bittencourt, H, et al. HTLV-1 decreases Th2 type of immune response in patients with strongyloidiasis. Parasite Immunol.2001;23(9):503–7.Google Scholar
Carp, NZ, Nejman, JH, Kelly, JJ. Strongyloidiasis: an unusual cause of colonic pseudopolyposis and gastrointestinal bleeding. Surg Endosc. 1987;1(3):175–7.Google Scholar
Al Samman, M, Haque, S, Long, JD. Strongyloidiasis colitis: a case report and review of the literature. J Clin Gastroenterol. 1999;28(1):77–80.Google Scholar
Adebamowo, CA, Akang, EE, Ladipo, JK, Ajao, OG. Schistosomiasis of the appendix. Br J Surg. 1991;78(10):1219–21.Google Scholar
Cao, J, Liu, WJ, Xu, XY, Zou, XP. Endoscopic findings and clinicopathologic characteristics of colonic schistosomiasis: a report of 46 cases. World J Gastroenterol. 2010;16(6):723–7.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×