Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T16:04:05.283Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

12 - Energy requirements and protein-energy metabolism and balance in preterm and term infants

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 December 2009

Patti J. Thureen
By
Sudha Kashyap  and
Karl F. Schulze
Edited by
William W. Hay
Patti J. Thureen
Affiliation:
University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center
Sudha Kashyap
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
Karl F. Schulze
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
William W. Hay
Affiliation:
University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center
Get access

Summary

Energy is required for all vital functions of the body at the cellular and organ level and this need is met by the dietary intake of energy substrates. Energy produced during oxidation of nutrients is generally converted to ATP (adenosine-5-triphosphate) that, in turn, provides the energy for necessary activities when it is hydrolyzed to ADP (adenosine-5-diphosphate). In this chapter some general aspects of energy metabolism are summarized briefly. This review is followed by discussions on energy needs of term and preterm infants. Finally, protein-energy metabolism and balance with specific attention to protein-energy interaction are discussed.

The energy requirement for an individual has been defined as: the amount of energy intake from food that will balance energy expenditure and exogenous energy losses when the individual's body size and composition and physical activity profile is consistent with long-term good health. In children and pregnant or lactating women, the energy requirements also include the energy needs associated with deposition of tissues or secretion of milk consistent with good health. Requirements for energy during the neonatal period when referenced to body weight are higher than any time later in life, primarily because of high rates of growth.

Energy requirements can be best understood by examining the energy balance equation: Gross Energy intake = Energy excreted + Energy expended + Energy stored. The gross energy intake is the energy provided by the diet.

Type
Chapter
Information
Neonatal Nutrition and Metabolism , pp. 134 - 146
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Energy and Protein Requirements. WHO Technical Bulletin #724. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization;1985.
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Ad Hoc Committee, Energy and protein requirements. FAO Food Nutr. 1973;7:1024.
Rao, M., Blass, E. M., Brignol, M. M.et al.Reduced heat loss following sucrose ingestion in premature and normal human newborns. Early Hum. Dev. 1997;48:109–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, M., Koenig, E., Li, S.et al.Direct calorimetry for the measurement of heat release in preterm infants: methods and applications. J. Perinatol. 1995;15:375–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Sauer, P. J., Dane, H. J., Visser, H. K.Longitudinal studies on metabolic rate, heat loss, and energy cost of growth in low birth weight infants. Pediatr. Res. 1984;18:254–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrannini, E.The theoretical bases of indirect calorimetry: a review. Metabolism 1988;37:287–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webb, P., Annis, J. F., Troutman, S. J. Jr.Energy balance in man measured by direct and indirect calorimetry. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1980;33:1287–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seale, J. L., Rumpler, W. V., Conway, J. M.et al.Comparison of doubly labeled water, intake-balance, and direct- and indirect-calorimetry methods for measuring energy expenditure in adult men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990;52:66–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulze, K., Stefanski, M., Masterson, J.et al.An analysis of the variability in estimates of bioenergetic variables in preterm infants. Pediatr. Res. 1986;20:422–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, E. F., Rios, G. R., Wilmoth, P. K.Estimation of 24-hour energy expenditure from shorter measurement periods in premature infants. Pediatr. Res. 1986;20:646–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perring, J., Henderson, M., Cooke, R. J.Factors affecting the measurement of energy expenditure during energy balance studies in preterm infants. Pediatr. Res. 2000;48:518–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinclair, J. C. Energy needs during infancy. In Fomon, S. J., Heird, W. C., eds. Energy and Protein needs during Infancy. Bristol-Myers Nutrition Symposia: Academic Press;1986:41–51.Google Scholar
Swyer, P. R.Assumptions used in measurements of energy metabolism. J. Nutr. 1991;121:1891–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lifson, N., Gordon, G. B., McClintock, R.Measurement of total carbon dioxide production by means of D2O18. J. Appl. Physiol. 1955;7:704–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoeller, D. A.Measurement of energy expenditure in free-living humans by using doubly labeled water. J. Nutr. 1988;118:1278–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, J. C. K.Energy metabolism in infants and children. Nutrition 1998;14:817–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Speakman, J. R.Principles, problems and a paradox with the measurement of energy expenditure of free-living subjects using doubly-labeled water. Stat. Med. 1990;9:1365–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Speakman, J. R., Perez-Camargo, G.et al.Validation of the doubly-labeled water technique in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Br. J. Nutr. 2001;85:75–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, P. D., James, W. P., Wong, W. W.et al.Calorimetric validation of the doubly-labeled water method for determination of energy expenditure in man. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 1984;38:95–106.Google Scholar
Roberts, S. B., Coward, W. A., Schlingenspeisen, K. H.et al.Comparison of the doubly labeled water (2H2(18)O) method with indirect calorimetry and a nutrient-balance study for simultaneous determination of energy expenditure, water intake, and metabolizable energy intake in preterm infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1986;44:315–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, C. L., Butte, N. F., Wong, W. W.et al.Determining energy expenditure in preterm infants: comparison of 2H2(18)O method and indirect calorimetry. Am. J. Physiol. 1992;263:R685–92.Google Scholar
Adams, A. K., Nelson, R. A., Bell, E. F.et al.Use of infrared thermographic calorimetry to determine energy expenditure in preterm infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;71:969–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulze, K. A model of variability in metabolic rate of neonates. In Fomon, S. J., Heird, W. C., eds. Energy and Protein Needs during Infancy. Bristol-Myers Nutrition Symposia: Academic Press;1986:19–40.Google Scholar
Schofield, W. N.Predicting basal metabolic rate, new standards and review of previous work. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 1985;39:S5–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Roberts, S. B., Savage, J., Coward, W. A., Chew, B., Lucas, A.Energy expenditure and intake in infants born to lean and overweight mothers. N. Engl. J. Med. 1988;318:461–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeMarie, M. P., Hoffenberg, A., Biggerstaff, S. L.et al.Determinants of energy expenditure in ventilated preterm infants. J. Perinat. Med. 1999;27:465–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, J., Maier, K., Hellstern, G., Linderkamp, O.Longitudinal evaluation of energy expenditure in preterm infants with birth weight less than 1000 g. Br. J. Nutr. 2003;89:533–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, K., Laurenz, M., Ketteler, J., Versmold, H.Longitudinal study of energy expenditure in preterm neonates < 30 weeks' gestation during the first three postnatal weeks. J. Pediatr. 2003;142:390–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chessex, P., Reichman, B. L., Verellen, G. J.et al.Influence of postnatal age, energy intake, and weight gain on energy metabolism in the very low-birth-weight infant. J. Pediatr. 1981;99:761–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubecz, I., Mestyan, J.Postprandial thermogenesis in human milk-fed very low birth weight infants. Biol. Neonate 1986;49:301–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danforth, E. Jr.Diet and obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1985;41:S1132–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stothers, J. K., Warner, R. M.Effect of feeding on neonatal oxygen consumption. Arch. Dis. Child 1979;54:415–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooke, O. G., Alvear, J.Postprandial metabolism in infants of low birth weight. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 1982;36:167–75.Google ScholarPubMed
Brooke, O. G., Ashworth, A.The influence of malnutrition on the postprandial metabolic rate and respiratory quotient. Br. J. Nutr. 1972;27:407–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mestyan, J., Jarai, I., Fekete, M.The total energy expenditure and its components in premature infants maintained under different nursing and environmental conditions. Pediatr. Res. 1968;2:161–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooke, O. G.Energy balance and metabolic rate in preterm infants fed with standard and high-energy formulas. Br. J. Nutr. 1980;44:13–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinabo, J. L., Durnin, J. V.Thermic effect of food in man: effect of meal composition, and energy content. Br. J. Nutr. 1990;64:37–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flatt, J. P. Assessment of energy metabolism in health and disease. In Kinny, J. M., ed. Report of the First Ross Conference on Medical Research. Columbus, OH: Ross Laboratories;1980:79.Google Scholar
Roberts, S. B., Lucas, A.Energetic efficiency and nutrient accretion in preterm infants fed extremes of dietary intake. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 1987;41:105–13.Google ScholarPubMed
Schulze, K. F., Stefanski, M., Masterson, J.et al.Energy expenditure, energy balance and composition of weight gain in low birth weight infants fed diets of different protein and energy content. J. Pediatr. 1987;110:753–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S., Schulze, K. F., Forsyth, M.et al.Growth, nutrient retention and metabolic response in low birth weight infants fed varying intakes of protein and energy. J. Pediatr. 1988;113:713–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wells, J. C., Davies, P. S.Energy cost of physical activity in twelve week old infants. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 1995;7:85–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butte, N. F., Wong, W. W., Ferlic, L.et al.Energy expenditure and deposition of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during early infancy. Pediatr. Res. 1990;28:631–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waterlow, J. C. Basic concepts in the determination of nutritional requirements of normal infants. In Tsang, R. C., Nichols, B. L., eds. Nutrition during Infancy. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley & Belfus:1988:1–19.Google Scholar
Brebbia, D. R., Altshuler, K. Z.Oxygen consumption rate and electroencephalographic stage of sleep. Science 1965;150:1621–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stothers, J. K., Warner, R. M.Oxygen consumption and neonatal sleep states. J. Physiol. 1978;278:435–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulze, K., Kairam, R., Stefanski, M.et al.Spontaneous variability in minute ventilation oxygen consumption and heart rate of low birth weight infants. Pediatr. Res. 1981;15:1111–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooke, O. G., Alvear, J., Arnold, M.Energy retention, energy expenditure, and growth in healthy immature infants. Pediatr. Res. 1979;13:215–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichman, B. L., Chessex, P., Putet, G.et al.Partition of energy metabolism and energy cost of growth in the very low-birth-weight infant. Pediatrics 1982;69:446–51.Google ScholarPubMed
Murlin, J. R., Conklin, R. E., Marsh, M. E.Energy metabolism of normal newborn babies, with special reference to the influence of food and of crying. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1925;29:1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, R.Respiratory metabolism in infancy and childhood. Regulation of body temperature of premature infants. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1943;65:376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruck, K.Temperature regulation in the newborn infant. Biol. Neonate 1961;3:65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masterson, J., Zucker, C., Schulze, K.Prone and supine positioning effects on energy expenditure and behavior of low birth weight neonates. Pediatrics 1987;80:689–92.Google ScholarPubMed
Chong, A., Murphy, N., Matthews, T.Effect of prone sleeping on circulatory control in infants. Arch. Dis. Child. 2000;82:253–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sinclair, J. C., Silverman, W. A.Relative hypermetabolism in undergrown human neonates. Lancet 1964;41:49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chessex, P., Reichman, B., Verellen, G.et al.Metabolic consequences of intrauterine growth retardation in very low birthweight infants. Pediatr. Res. 1984;18:709–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Picaud, J. C., Putet, G., Rigo, J., Salle, B. L., Senterre, J.Metabolic and energy balance in small- and appropriate-for-gestational-age, very low-birth-weight infants. Acta. Paediatr. Suppl. 1994;405:54–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lafeber, H. N., Sulkers, E. J., Chapman, T. E., Sauer, P. J.Glucose production and oxidation in preterm infants during total parenteral nutrition. Pediatr. Res. 1990;28:153–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Bohler, T., Kramer, T., Janecke, A. R., Hoffmann, G. F., Linderkamp, O.Increased energy expenditure and fecal fat excretion do not impair weight gain in small-for-gestational-age preterm infants. Early Hum. Dev. 1999;54:223–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreymann, G., Grosser, S., Buggischn, P.et al.Oxygen consumption and resting metabolic rate in sepsis, sepsis syndrome, and septic shock. Crit. Care Med. 1993;21:1012–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plank, L. D., Connolly, A. B., Hill, G. L.Sequential changes in the metabolic response in severely septic patients during the first 23 days after the onset of peritonitis. Ann. Surg. 1998;228:146–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moriyama, S., Okamoto, K., Tabira, Y.et al.Evaluation of oxygen consumption and resting energy expenditure in critically ill patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Crit. Care Med. 1999;27:2133–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, J., Hentschel, R., Linderkamp, O.Effect of sepsis syndrome on neonatal oxygen consumption and energy expenditure. Pediatrics 2002;110:e69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mrozek, J. D., Georgieff, M. K., Blazar, B. R., Mammel, M. C., Schwarzenberg, S. J.Effect of sepsis syndrome on neonatal protein and energy metabolism. J. Perinatol. 2000;20:96–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wahlig, T. M., Gatto, C. W., Boros, S. J.et al.Metabolic response of preterm infants to variable degrees of respiratory illness. J. Pediatr. 1994;124:283–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulze, A., Abubakar, K., Gill, G., Way, R. C., Sinclair, J. C.Pulmonary oxygen consumption: a hypothesis to explain the increase in oxygen consumption of low birth weight infants with lung disease. Intens. Care Med. 2001;27:1636–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurzner, S. I., Garg, M., Bautista, D. B.et al.Growth failure in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia: nutrition and elevated resting metabolic expenditure. Pediatrics 1988;81:379–84.Google ScholarPubMed
Yeh, T. F., McClenan, D. A., Ajayi, O. A., Pildes, R. S.Metabolic rate and energy balance in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J. Pediatr. 1989;114:448–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carnielli, V. P., Verlato, G., Benini, F.et al.Metabolic and respiratory effects of theophylline in the preterm infant. Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonatal Edn. 2000;83:F39–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, J., Maier, K., Linderkamp, O., Hentschel, R.Effect of caffeine on oxygen consumption and metabolic rate in very low birth weight infants with idiopathic apnea. Pediatrics 2001;107:660–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fjeld, C. R., Cole, F. S., Bier, D. M.Energy expenditure, lipolysis, and glucose production in preterm infants treated with theophylline. Pediatr. Res. 1992;32:693–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, S. B., Young, V. R.Energy costs of fat and protein deposition in the human infant. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1988;48:951–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichman, B., Chessex, P., Putet, G.et al.Diet, fat accretion and growth in premature infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 1981;305:1495–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gudinchet, F., Schutz, Y., Micheli, J. L., Stettler, E., Jequier, E.Metabolic cost of growth in very low-birth-weight infants. Pediatr. Res. 1982;16:1025–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Towers, H. M., Schulze, K. F., Ramakrishnan, R., Kashyap, S.Energy expended by low birth weight infants in the deposition of protein and fat. Pediatr. Res. 1997;41:584–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young, V. R., Steffee, W. P., Pencharz, P. B., Winterer, J. C., Scrimshaw, N. S.Total human body protein synthesis in relation to protein requirements at various ages. Nature 1975;253:192–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitehead, R. G., Paul, A. A., Cole, T. J.A critical analysis of measured food energy intakes during infancy and early childhood in comparison with current international recommendations. J. Hum. Nutr. 1981;35:339–48.Google ScholarPubMed
Prentice, A. M., Lucas, A., Vasquez-Velasquez, L., Davies, P. S., Whitehead, R. G.Are current dietary guidelines for young children a prescription for overfeeding?Lancet 1988;2:1066–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruin, N. C., Degenhart, H. J., Gal, S.et al.Energy utilization and growth in breast-fed and formula-fed infants measured prospectively during the first year of life. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998;67:885–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Food and Nutrition Board. Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council. Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th Edition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989.
Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for United Kingdom. London: HMSO;1991.
Health and Welfare Canada. Nutrition Recommendations. The Report of the Scientific Review Committee. Ottawa, ONT; 1990: Supply and Services.
American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Nutritional needs of preterm infants. In Kleinman, R. E., ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook American Academy of Pediatrics. Elk Grove Village, IL; 1998:55–87.Google Scholar
Canadian Pediatric Society Nutrition Committee. Nutrition needs and feeding of premature infants. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1995;152:1765.
European Society for Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Committee on Nutrition of the Preterm Infant. Nutrition and feeding of preterm infants. Acta. Paediatr. Scand. 1987;336:1.
The Life Sciences Research Office (LSRO) Expert Panel on Assessment of Nutrient Requirements for Preterm Infant Formulas. J. Nutr. 2002;132:1413S.
European Society for Gastroenterology and Nutrition. Comment on the content and composition of lipids in infant formulas. Acta. Paediatr. Scand. 1991;80:887–96.CrossRef
Millward, D. J., Bates, P. C., Coyer, P. et al. The effect of dietary energy and protein on growth as studied in animal models. In Fomon, S. J., Heird, W. C., eds. Energy and Protein Needs During Infancy. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1986:127–56.Google Scholar
Munro, H. N. General aspects of the regulation of protein metabolism by diet and by hormones. III. Influence of dietary carbohydrate and fat on protein metabolism. In Munro, H. N., ed. Mammalian Protein Metabolism. New York, NY: Academic Press;1964:412–47.Google Scholar
Calloway, D. H., Spector, H.Nitrogen balance as related to calorie and protein intake in active young men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1954;2:405–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kashyap, S., Forsyth, M., Zucker, C.et al.Effects of varying protein and energy intakes on growth and metabolic response in low birth weight infants. J. Pediatr. 1986;108:955–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S., Schulze, K. F., Ramakrishnan, R., Dell, R. B., Heird, W. C.Evaluation of a mathematical model for predicting the relationship between protein and energy intakes of low birth weight infants and the rate and composition of weight gain. Pediatr. Res. 1994;35:704–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S., Ohira-Kist, K., Abildskov, K.et al.Effects of quality of energy on growth and metabolic response in enterally fed low birth weight infants. Pediatr. Res. 2001; 50:390–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zlotkin, S. H., Bryan, M. H., Anderson, G. H.Intravenous nitrogen and energy intakes required to duplicate in utero nitrogen accretion in prematurely born human infants. J. Pediatr. 1981;99:115–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, T. L., Muttart, C. R., Bieber, M. A., Nicholson, J. F., Heird, W. C.A controlled trial of glucose versus glucose and amino acids in premature infants. J. Pediatr. 1979;94:947–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duffy, B., Gunn, T., Collinge, J., Pencharz, P.The effect of varying protein quality and energy intake on the nitrogen metabolism of parenterally fed very low birth weight (less than 1600 g) infants. Pediatr. Res. 1981;15:1040–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pineault, M., Chessex, P., Bisaillon, S., Brisson, G.Total parenteral nutrition in the newborn: impact of the quality of infused energy on nitrogen metabolism. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1988;47:298–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Long, J. M. 3rd, Wilmore, D. W., Mason, A. D. Jr, Pruitt, B. A. Jr.Effect of carbohydrate and fat intake on nitrogen excretion during total intravenous feeding. Ann. Surg. 1977;185:417–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichman, B., Chessex, P., Verellen, G.et al.Dietary composition and macronutrient storage in preterm infants. Pediatrics 1983;72:322–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Whyte, R. K., Haslam, R., Vlainic, C.et al.Energy balance and nitrogen balance in growing low birth weight infants fed human milk or formula. Pediatr. Res. 1983;17:891–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lunn, P. G., Austin, S.Dietary manipulation of plasma albumin concentration. J. Nutr. 1983;113:1791–802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, S. B., Lucas, A.The effects of two extremes of dietary intake on protein accretion in preterm infants. Early Hum. Dev. 1985;12:301–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, S. A., Bryan, M. H., Anderson, G. H.Human milk feeding in premature infants: protein, fat, and carbohydrate balances in the first two weeks of life. J. Pediatr. 1981;99:617–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S., Schulze, K. F., Forsyth, M.et al.Growth, nutrient retention and metabolic response of low-birth-weight infants fed supplemented and unsupplemented preterm human milk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990;52:254–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S., Heird, W. C. Protein requirements of low birthweight, very low birthweight, and small for gestational age infants. In Räihä, N. C. R., ed. Protein Metabolism During Infancy, Nestlé Nutrition Workshop Series, Vol 33. New York, NY: Nestec Ltd, Vevey/Raven Press, Ltd; 1994:133.Google Scholar
Zello, G. A., Menendez, C. E., Rafii, M.et al.Minimum protein intake for the preterm neonate determined by protein and amino acid kinetics. Pediatr. Res. 2003;53:338–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catzeflis, C., Schutz, Y., Micheli, J. L.et al.Whole body protein synthesis and energy expenditure in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr. Res. 1985;19:679–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heird, W. C., Kashyap, S., Schulze, K. F. et al. Nutrient utilization and growth in LBW infants. In Goldman, A.et al., eds. Human Lactation 3: The Effects of Human Milk on the Recipient Infant. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1987:9–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pittard, W. B. 3rd, Geddes, K. M., Picone, T. A.Cord blood amino acid concentrations from neonates of 23–41 weeks gestational age. JPEN. 1988;12:167–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McIntosh, N., Rodeck, C. H., Heath, R.Plasma amino acids of the mid-trimester human fetus. Biol. Neonate 1984;45:218–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schanler, R. J., Oh, W.Nitrogen and mineral balance in preterm infants fed human milks or formula. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 1985;4:214–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shenai, J. P., Reynolds, J. W., Babson, S. G.Nutritional balance studies in very low birth weight infants: enhanced nutrient retention rates by an experimental formula. Pediatrics 1980;66:233–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Tyson, J. E., Lasky, R. E., Mize, C. E.et al.Growth, metabolic response and development in very low birth weight infants fed banked human milk or enriched formula. I. Neonatal findings. J. Pediatr. 1983;103:95–104.Google ScholarPubMed
Ehrenkranz, R. A., Younes, N., Lemons, J. A.et al.Longitudinal growth of hospitalized very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 1999;104:280–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The Life Sciences Research Office (LSRO) Expert Panel on Assessment of Nutrient Requirements for Preterm Infant Formulas. J. Nutr. 2002;132:1423S–4S.
Rudman, D., Millikan, W. J., Richardson, T. J.et al.Elemental balances during intravenous hyperalimentation of underweight adult subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 1975;55:94–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashyap, S., Forsyth, M., Zucker, C.et al.Relationship between nitrogen retention and retention of electrolytes and minerals in low birth weight infants. Pediatr. Res., 1986; 20:413A.Google Scholar
Räihä, N. C., Heinonen, K., Rassin, D. K., Gaull, G. E.Milk protein quality in low-birthweight infants. I. Metabolic responses and effects on growth. Pediatrics 1976;57:659–84.Google ScholarPubMed
Widdowson, E. M. Changes in body proportion and composition during growth. In Davis, J., Dobbing, J., eds. Scientific Foundations of Pediatrics. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders Co; 1974:153–63.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×