Index

doi:10.1017/9781009110693.015

Index

accountability, 54

ACSU. See Asociación Cultural y Social del Uruguay

affiliation, 309–310, 314, 316–320

affirmation, witness, 270–273

affirmative action, 160–162

Afghanistan, 9–10, 331

African National Congress (ANC), 300–301

Afro-Uruguayans, 143, 158. See also Uruguay

ACSU, 150–151

activism of, 142–143, 151–162

affirmative action for, 160–162

anti-discrimination laws on, 156

black press of, 146–147

in census, 140–142, 156–160

conventillos of, 147–148, 158

culture of, 145–147, 150–151, 158

denial and erasure, historical, of, 140–147, 150–151, 153–154, 156–158, 160, 162

discrimination against, marginalization of, 145–147, 150–151, 156–157, 160–163

displacement of, 147–151, 154

inclusion of, 152–154, 156–158

Montevideo, 145, 147–150, 156

recognition, visibility of, 26–27, 155–163

agency

Catholicism providing, 115

of survivors, 10–11

victimhood and, 10–11, 13–14, 58

Alfred, Taiaiake, 47

algorithms, in social media, 20

ally, 42–43

amplification, 20

ANC. See African National Congress

Annan, Kofi, 92

anti-abortion movement, Polish, 9–10

anti-mining movement, Guatemala, 118–119

Catholic Church and, 117, 127–129

internal armed conflict and, 113–118, 126–127, 129–135

persecution of, 129–131

apartheid, 300–301

apologist, 6, 71, 73, 323–324

Apology (film), 222–223

Appiah, Kwame Anthony, 39–40

appropriation, justice as, 186–189

Arab Spring, 258–259

Arendt, Hannah, 37–40, 42–43, 53, 68, 272

on guilt, 34–35, 37–39, 46

on responsibility, 34–35, 37–39, 41, 47

Argentina

CONADEP report, 283, 296

coup in, 279

devils-angels theory in, 283, 285

dictatorship in, 279, 283–285, 289–290, 296, 298–299

EGP, 281–282

ERP, 285, 297

Kirchner presidency, 281–283, 289–290, 296

perpetrators in, 286–287, 298

Scilingo confession in, 298

two-demons theory in, 283–285, 289, 296–299

Argentine armed left, confessions of, 289–291, 294–295

actor in, 292–293

Barco, 282–284, 292–293, 297–298

dialogue and, 280–284, 297–298

Hilb, 279–282, 284–288, 290–295, 298–302

Jouvé, 281–284, 292–293, 297–298

Leis, 281–282, 284, 287–296, 298–302

script in, 292–295, 302

silencing efforts, gag rules on, 280–282, 284, 287–288, 293–294, 297–303

timing in, 30, 279–282, 284, 292, 295–299, 301–303

Asociación Cultural y Social del Uruguay (Social and Cultural Association of Uruguay) (ACSU), 150–151

Assad, Bashar al-, 248–249, 252, 266

attractors, 22, 53

autonomy, 86–87, 309–310, 314, 316–320

Bagha Bangali (film), 232–233

Bangladesh war of 1971

genocide in, 229–232

Razakars in, 28–29, 229, 231–233, 239, 243–244

transitional justice and, 225–227, 230–231, 242

war crimes tribunal on, 230–231

Bangladesh war of 1971, rape in, 23, 28–29, 228–230, 241. See also birangonas

exclusion, inclusion, and, 226–227, 239–243

graphic novel on, 234–236

khota and survivors of, 223–225

sex work and survivors of, 223–227, 235–236, 238–240, 242

testimony on, 223–227, 234–235, 242

as traitors, survivors of, 225–227, 230–236, 238–244

Bangladeshi state, 28–29, 229–231, 233–234

Barco, Oscar del, 282–284, 292–293, 297–298

Barksdale, Dante, 327

Bellingcat, 250–251, 253–258, 263–264

Benedetti, Mario, 147

Bengali collaborators. See Razakars

Berman, Antoine, 181

Biden, Joe, 324–333

binaries, 5–7, 67, 79–82, 100–105, 323–324, 332. See also victims, perpetrators and

alternatives to, 69–71, 324–326

Arendt on, 53

attractors and, 53

commemoration entrenching, 28

in justice stories, 67–68

in legalism, 3, 6

peacebuilding and, 326

perpetrator and victim, proportional relationship of, 69–70

post-genocidal, 207, 213

publics and, 7

survivors, descendants, and, 324

transitional justice and, 61, 198, 225–226

of TRCs, 7

in trials, 22–23

birangonas (Bangladeshi war-heroines), 224–225, 238, 241

Bangladeshi state on, 28–29, 229–230, 233–234

in graphic novel, 235–236

rehabilitation of, 233–234

sex work and, 238–240

as traitors, 225–226, 230–236, 239–244

blame, hierarchy of, 79–80

Bonafini, Hebe de, 290–291, 296

Bordaberry, Juan Maria, 150–151

Bou Meng, 27, 199

appropriation, justice as, and, 186–189

Buddhism and, 181–184, 189–195, 197–198

desire and, 183–186, 189–195

Duch and, 175–178, 194–195

entry into court, 180–182, 184–185

karmic justice and, 195–198

in Khmer Rouge, 198–199

microphone and, 178–181, 184–185, 187–189

on neak ta, 195–198

on S-21, 172–200

scars of, 170–171, 177–178, 186–188, 192–193

Studzinsky and, 171–172, 177–178, 181–182, 186, 188

testimony, questioning of, 172–178, 180–181, 183–186, 189–192, 195–199

torture of, 170–171, 174–175, 177, 183–185, 187

translation of, 179–185, 187–189, 195–196

trauma, mental health of, 171–172, 181–183, 186–188

wife of, 172–173, 175, 177–195

brave women, Bangladeshi. See birangonas

Brazil, 152–153, 161

Bretholz, Leo, 59–60

Buddhism, 181–184, 189–195, 197–198

Butler, Judith, 226–227, 242–243

CA. See Catholic Action

CALAS. See Centro de Acción Legal, Ambiental y Social de Guatemala

Cambodia. See Bou Meng; Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; S-21

Canada, Indigenous communities in

Cross Lake First Nations Reserve, suicides at, 49–50

identity in reconciliation process, 41–43, 47–50

land acknowledgement, 43

racism and, 23–24, 34–35, 44–45

reconciliation process, 12, 35, 41–43, 47–50, 251

residential schools, xvi, 12, 35, 251, 325

settler, colonized identities and, 41–44

TRC on residential schools, xvi, 12, 35, 251

in Truth and Indignation, xvi, 12

Cardoso, Jorge Emilio, 150

Catholic Action (CA), 118–122

Catholic Church, in Guatemala. See Guatemala, Catholic Church in

CEH. See Comisión de Esclarecimiento Histórico

census, 140–142, 156–160

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 118–119

Centro de Acción Legal, Ambiental y Social de Guatemala (Centre for Legal, Environmental and Social Action, Guatemala) (CALAS), 113–117, 130

chemical weapons, 248–249, 252, 259–261

cheminots (railway workers), 24–25

child protectionism, 92–93, 95

child soldiers

constructed, actual identities of, 79

girls, 103–104

as ideal victims, 97–100

in international law, 90–96, 105–106

in LRA, 25–26, 78–83, 89–91, 95–103, 105–106

Ongwen as, 25–26, 78–79, 82–83, 89–91, 98, 101–102, 105–106

as perpetrators, 79, 82, 89–106

in Renamo, Mozambique, 101

responsibility of, 89–91, 97–100, 105

as victims, perpetrators and, 79, 89–106

chosen glories, 312

chosen traumas, 312

Christianity, in Guatemala. See Guatemala, Catholic Church in

Christie, Nils, 57–58, 61–75

CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency

citizen journalists, 248, 258–259

cluster suicides. See Cross Lake First Nations Reserve, Canada, suicides at

cognitive dissonance, 214–215, 323

Coleman, Peter, 332

colonialism, disinformation and, 19

colonized identity, settler and, 41–46

Combatants for Peace, 326

comfort women, 222–223, 227–228, 242

Coming to the Table, 319–320

Comisión de Esclarecimiento Histórico (Historical Clarification Commission) (CEH), 122–123

commemoration, 319, 325–326

Rwandan, 28, 205, 207–210, 213, 215–218

exclusion, reconciliation, and, 213–215, 217

national identity and, 202–203, 213

victim identity and, 206–208, 217

communism, 26, 119–120

complexity, 329, 332–333

in Holocaust, SNCF and, 71–74

narrative, 20–21, 135, 213, 215–218, 329–330

of victimhood, 21, 27, 213, 215–216

Comtrade, 259–260

CONADEP. See National Truth Commission, Argentina

concrete victims, 67–68

Confederate Statues controversy, US, 30, 306–307, 318–320

confessions

framework of, 280–282

narrative and, 30

of racism, 42–43

Scilingo, 298

of South African armed left, 300–301

types of, 293

conflict narratives, 1–5

conflict parties

as attractors, 22, 53

state power, changes in, and, 23

constitutive performativity, 226–227, 231, 239–243

content moderators, 262–263, 268–269

conventillos (Afro-Uruguayan tenements), 147–148, 158

core identity, 308–309, 320

costumbre (custom), 118–119

counternarratives, 20

COVID-19 pandemic, 15–16, 308, 313, 331–332

crimes of obedience, 85–98

Cross Lake First Nations Reserve, Canada, suicides at, 49–50

crowdsourcing, 255–259

Cultivated Stories (Fernandes), 12

custom (costumbre), 118–119

daily heroes, 64–71

Datta, Chaya Rani, 238–242

Davis, Fania, 328

(de)formation, justice as, 189–190, 199

dehumanization, 41, 46, 52, 61

of Afro-Uruguayans, 149

Radio Mille Collines and, 1

in S-21, 172–173

democracy, 188

descendants, survivors and, 324

desire, 183–186, 189–195

devils-angels theory, 283, 285

Dewey, John, 255

Dhamoon, Rita Kaur, 43–44

dialogic conflict, 280–281

dialogue

Argentine armed left, confessions of, and, 280–284, 297–298

in symbol conflicts, 318

DiAngelo, Robin, 41–43, 45

digital archiving organizations, 249–250

digital ethnography, 250–251

digital evidence databases, transitional justice and, 266–268

digital media, 23. See also social media

algorithms in, 20

counternarratives in, 20

disinformation in, 19

open-source investigation with, 247

perpetrators in, 17–19

Syrian Archive, xvi, 29–30

in Truth and Indignation, xvi

digital witnessing, 20, 255–257, 265, 267–268, 270–274. See also open-source investigation

disinformation and, 254–255, 257

social media and, 257–258, 270

dignity, 329

disinformation, 270

colonialism and, 19

digital witnessing and, 254–255, 257

fake news, 5–6, 331

hyper-authenticated, hyper-verified information and, 274

impunity and, 252–255

Russian, 18, 29–30, 252–254, 267

on social media, 5–6, 19, 52, 262–263, 331

super spreaders of, 331–332

in Syrian conflict, 18, 29–30, 252–254, 262–263, 267

truth and, 254–255

World War I propaganda, 255, 274–275

Donovan, Joan, 253, 331

Drumbl, Mark, 6, 85–98

Duch

Bou Meng and, 175–178, 194–195

at trial, 170, 177–178, 187, 194–195, 199

Durban conference. See World Conference against Racism, Durban, South Africa

East Timor, 94–95

ECCC. See Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia

Ecuador, 305–306

EGP (Argentina). See Ejército Guerrillero del Pueblo

EGP (Guatemala). See Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres

Einstein, Albert, 330

Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres (Guerilla Army of the Poor) (EGP) (Guatemala), 113–114, 116–117

Ejército Guerrillero del Pueblo (Guerilla Army of the Villages) (EGP) (Argentina), 281–282

enemies, as heroes, 53

Enloe, Cynthia, 227–228

epistemic injustice, 10

Erik (padre), 127–128

ERP. See People’s Revolutionary Party, Argentina

exclusion. See also inclusion; marginalization

of Bangladeshi wartime rape survivors, 226–227, 239–243

narratives of, 52–53

from victimhood, in Rwanda, 202, 208, 213–215, 217

exile, justice as, 181–184

extractivism. See Guatemala, extractivism in

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC), 27

Bou Meng, testimony, questioning of, 172–178, 180–181, 183–186, 189–192, 195–199

Duch in, 170, 177–178, 187, 194–195, 199

karmic justice and, 195–198

Mam Nai at, 197–198

microphone in, 178–181, 184–185, 187–189

neak ta and, 195–198

neoliberalism, democracy, and, 188

Non Nil in, 170–172, 177–180, 184–190, 198–199

Sambath Reach, 196–197

Studzinsky in, 171–172, 177–178, 181–182, 186, 188

transitional justice and, 181, 188–189, 195, 198

translation in, 179–181, 187

trauma, mental health in, 171–172, 181–183

Facebook, 1–2, 19–20, 331

fake news, 5–6, 331

Fanon, Frantz, 24, 45–46, 48–49

FARG. See National Fund for the Neediest Genocide Survivors

Federman, Sarah, xvi–xvii, 55

Fernandes, Sujatha, 12

Fisher, Roger, 305

Floyd, George, murder of, 318

football (fútbol), 158–159

foreign, trial of, 181

formula stories, 56

France

Resistance, 54–57, 63–64

after World War II, 236–238

Zone Turquoise, 212

Freire, Paulo, 119–120

French National Railways (SNCF), xvi–xvii, 53, 60

as hero, 24–25, 54–57, 63–64

Holocaust and, 22, 24–25, 54–57, 59–69, 71–74

Holocaust atonement of, 54–55, 65–66, 70–71, 74

as ideal perpetrator, 60–63

idealization and debates on, 56, 66–69

justice heroes and, 61–62, 64–66

narratives, diversity of, on, 24–25, 54–55, 57

as perpetrator, 24–25, 54–56, 68–69

settlement by, 55, 65–66

in US, debate, hearings on, 55, 59, 62, 65–68, 72–73

as victim, 54–56

Frente Amplio, 158

Fricker, Miranda, 10

fútbol (football), 158–159

Gacaca courts, Rwanda, 210–211, 267

Galeano, Eduardo, 144

GAM. See Grupo de Apoyo Muto

Gandhi, Mahatma, 16–17

Geneva Conventions, 92–93, 95

genocide

in Bangladesh war of 1971, 229–232

binaries after, 207, 213

Guatemalan, 115–117, 121–122

Indonesian, 328

meaning and victims of, 203–205

visibility, increasing, of, 201–202

genocide, Rwandan. See Rwanda

Gerardi Conedera, Juan José, 113, 123–126, 130–131

Germany, Nazi. See Holocaust; Nazis

Germany, Syrians and, 251–252, 260–261, 267–268

girl child soldiers, 103–104

Gone, Joseph P., 48–50

Google, 20

Gould, Jeffrey, 145

Greece, 306–307, 316–318

grihojuddho, 230–231

Grondona, Mariano, 297

Grupo de Apoyo Muto (Mutual Support Group) (GAM), 122–123

Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, detention at, 95

Guatemala, 124

anti-mining movement, 113–119, 126–135

CALAS, 113–117, 130

Catholic Church in, 115, 117–118, 134–135

anti-mining movement and, 117, 127–129

CA, 118–122

costumbre opposed by, 118–119

Gerardi, 113, 123–126, 130–131

martyrdom and, 26, 113–117, 124–126

ODHAG, 123–126

progressive activism of, 119–121, 125–126

REMHI, 123–126, 130–131

sacred struggle narrative of, 114–117, 125, 130–131, 135

state repression of, 119–122

CEH, 122–123

Civil Patrols, 132–134

coup in, 118–120

EGP, 113–114, 116–117

ex-guerillas in, 113–114, 116–117, 134–135

extractivism in, 126–131

extractive imperative, 117, 126–127

Marlin Mine, 116–119, 126–134

Mining Code, 1997, and, 126–127

structural sin and, 117

genocide, 115–117, 121–122

guerilla movement, 120–123, 131–135

internal armed conflict, 113–118, 122–123, 126–127, 129–135

MCA, 120–122

Project for the National Police Historical Archives, 134–135

scorched earth policy in, 116–117, 121–122

state repression in, 116–117, 119–122, 134

trauma as frame in, 115–117

truth, right to, in, 122, 126–127

truth commissions, 26, 122–126, 130–131

US and, 118–120

Guerilla Army of the Poor. See Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres

Guerilla Army of the Villages. See Ejército Guerrillero del Pueblo

guerilla movements. See Argentine armed left, confessions of; Guatemala

Guevara, Che, 288–289

guilt

Arendt on, 34–35, 37–39, 46

criminal, 36

German, for Nazi atrocities, 35–38, 53–54

identity and, 34–35, 41–46

Jaspers on, 34–38, 42, 47, 53–54

liability and, 36, 46

metaphysical, 36–37, 43

moral, 36

political, 36

racism and, 42–43, 45

responsibility and, 34–39, 41, 46

Halloun, Fakhira, 10

harm, justice and, 25–26

Hearty, Kevin, 207

hegemony of the single instance, 12–13

heroes, 15–17, 22, 329, 332–333

daily, 64–71

digital witnessing, open-source investigation, and, 268–270, 272–273

French Resistance, 63–64

ideal, 63–66

justice, 16, 61–62, 64–66

as perpetrators, 16

post-conflict, enemies as, 53

publics on, 15–16

SNCF, 24–25, 54–57, 63–64

superheroes, 63–64

World War II, 16–17, 63–64

Herskovitch, Corrine, 65

Hicks, Donna, 329

Higgins, Eliot, 253–254

Hilb, Claudia

as actor, in confession, 292–293

criticism, silencing of, 284, 293–294, 298–300

devils-angels theory rejected by, 285

Leis compared with, 287–288, 290–291

script and confession of, 293–294, 302

timing of confession, 279–282, 284, 295, 298–299, 301–302

two-demons theory rejected by, 284–285

on violence, 284–287, 290–293, 295, 299, 302

Hilberg, Raul, 53, 60–61

Historical Clarification Commission. See Comisión de Esclarecimiento Histórico

Holland, William Jacob, 140–141

Holocaust, 5, 63–66, 323

compensation funds, 55

ideal victims of, 58–59, 66, 68

SNCF and, 22, 24–25, 54–57, 59–69, 71–74

SNCF atonement for, 54–55, 65–66, 70–71, 74

USHMM, 73, 327–328

Holocaust survivors, xvi–xvii, 10–11, 68, 73, 323, 327–328

Hsuing, Tiffany, 222–223

human rights, expanded definition of, 155–156

Human Rights Watch, 95–96

humanity, in international law, 88–89

hyper-authenticated information, 249–250, 273–275

Ibreck, R., 207–208

ICC. See International Criminal Court

ICTR. See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

ICTY. See International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia

ideal heroes. See heroes

ideal perpetrators. See perpetrators

ideal victims. See victims, ideal

idealizations, 54–55, 74

alternatives to, 69–71

formula stories, 56

justice stories, 56, 67–68

in SNCF debates, 56, 66–69

identification, 85–86

identity, 327, 332

in Canadian Indigenous reconciliation process, 41–43, 47–50

of child soldiers, constructed and actual, 79

emphasis on, 39–40

Fanon on, 45–46

fixed, 48–50

guilt and, 34–35, 41–46

mythos of, 312–313, 317–318

race as politicized, 40–41

reconciliation and, 41–43, 47–50

relational, 30, 309–310, 314, 317–318

relationality and, 30, 49–50

RIT, 308–310, 316–318, 320

Rwandan national, commemoration and, 202–203, 213

settler and colonized, Canadian, 41–44

trauma and Rwandan, 207

victimhood as, 23–24, 34–35, 40, 43–44, 48–50

identity, victim. See victimhood

identity conflicts, 30

impunity

complexity and, 329

disinformation and, 252–255

perpetrators, understanding, and, 13

in Syrian conflict, 252–254, 261

IMT. See International Military Tribunal

inclusion

Afro-Uruguayan, 152–154, 156–158

identity conflicts and, 30

post-conflict, exclusion and, 53

Indigenous communities

Canadian. See Canada, Indigenous communities in

in Uruguay, 144–145, 150–152

US, 48

individual

autonomous, 86–87

in international law, 80–82, 84–87, 91, 106

in Kantian model, 86–87, 89

Indonesia, 328

inhuman, perpetrators as, 88–89

internal armed conflict, Guatemalan. See Guatemala

International Center for Counter Terrorism, 327

international crimes, 84–86

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Ongwen trial of, 25–26, 78–79, 83, 89–91, 98, 101–103, 105–106

Rome Statute, 80, 93–94

on Werfalli, 257–258

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), 203, 210–214

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 84, 87–88

international law, 87–90

child protectionism in, 92–93

child soldiers in, 90–96, 105–106

humanity in, 88–89

individual in, 80–82, 84–87, 91, 106

mens rea in, 86–87, 91

International Military Tribunal (IMT), 86

internet, increasing access to, 256–257

Inuit people, Canadian, 44–45

Inutiq, Sandra, 44–45

ISIS, 249

Israel, 10, 68, 311, 326

Jackson, Robert, 88

Japanese Rape Victims, World War II, 222–223, 227–228, 242

Jaspers, Karl, 36–37, 53

on guilt, 34–38, 42, 47, 53–54

The Question of German Guilt, 53–54

on responsibility, 34–39

Jerusalem, Israelis, Palestinians on, 311

Jews, in Nazi Germany, 52–53

Jouvé, Héctor, 281–284, 292–293, 297–298

justice facade, 177–178, 194

justice heroes, 61–62, 64–66, 73

justice stories, 56, 67–68

Kagame, Paul, 207–208

Kant, Immanuel, 86–87, 89

Kar Savuth, 195

karmic justice, 27, 195–198

Kelly, Toby, 225–226

Kelman, Herbert, 85–98

Kelsen, Hans, 87

Kendi, Ibram X., 42–43

Khadr, Omar, 95

Khatib, Hadi al, 261

Khatib, Sulaima, 326

Khatoon, Morjina, 238–242

Khmer Rouge. See Bou Meng; Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia; S-21

khota, 223–225

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 16–17

Kirchner presidency, Argentina, 281–283, 289–290, 296

Klarsfeld, Beate, 61–62, 65

Klarsfeld, Serge, 61–62, 65

Kony, Joseph, 25–26, 78–79, 90–91, 100–101

Korean comfort women, 222–223, 227–228

Krafft, P. M., 253, 331

Kriesberg, Louis, 5

Kurdi, Aylan, 10, 12–13

Kwibuka. See commemoration

land acknowledgement, 43

Landrieu, Mitch, 307

Last Train to Auschwitz (Federman), xvi–xvii, 55

Lederach, John Paul, 3–7, 66, 74

legal definition of victimhood, Rwandan, 205–217

legal person, 81–82

legalism, 332

binaries in, 3, 6

in justice facade, 177–178

justice heroes and, 65–66

Leis, Ricardo, 288

as actor, in confession, 292–293

criticism, silencing of, 287–288, 293–294, 298–300

Hilb compared with, 287–288, 290–291

Montoneros and, 281–282, 287–290

script and confession of, 293–294, 302

timing of confession, 281–282, 295–296, 298–299, 301–302

on violence, 284, 287–291, 295, 299, 302

Levi, Primo, 5

liability, 36, 46–47

liberation theology, 26, 119–120

Libya, 257–258

Lima Oliva, Byron, 125–126

Lippmann, Walter, 255, 274–275

literature, restorative justice and, 328

Locke, Mamie E., 319

Loinger, Georges, 64

Lord of the Iron Staff (neak ta), 195–198

Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA)

child soldiers in, 25–26, 78–83, 89–91, 95–103, 105–106

Kony, 25–26, 78–79, 90–91, 100–101

local communities and, 102–103

Ongwen in, 25–26, 78–83, 90–91, 98, 101–102

spiritual cosmology of, 78–79, 100–101

as victims, perpetrators, members of, 89–91, 98, 100–103, 105–106

Lucas García, Romeo, 121–122

Macedonia Naming Dispute, 30, 306–307, 316–318

MacKinnon, Catharine, 228

Madikizela-Mandela, Winnie, 300–301

Mali, 327

Mam Nai, 197–198

marginalization, 145–147, 150–151, 156–157, 160–163, 325

Marlin Mine, Guatemala, 116–119, 126–134

martyrdom, 26, 113–117, 124–126

Maryland, US, 62, 67–68, 72–73

MCA. See Movimiento Campesino del Altiplano

McAllister, Carlotta, 115–117

McConnachie, K., 207

McEvoy, K., 207

McWhorter, John, 41

meaning, genocide victims and, 203–205

Melini, Yuri, 114–115

memory

memory rupture, 116–117

politics of, 134

Rwandan genocide, victim identity and, 205–218

in Rwandan national identity, genocide and, 202–203

mens rea, 25–26, 74, 86–87, 91, 271–272

mental health, 171–172, 181–183

Merry, Sally Engle, 269

metadata, 263–264

metaphysical guilt, 36–37

Military Commissions Act (US), 95

Million, Dian, 11–12

Milosevic, Slobodan, 17

Minow, Martha, 58

Mnemonic, 249

Mohamed, Saira, 14, 69–70

Montevideo, Uruguay, 145, 147–150, 156

Montoneros, 281–282, 285, 287–290

Mookherjee, Nayanika, 234–235

Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, 290–291, 296

Movimiento Campesino del Altiplano (Peasant Movement of the Highland) (MCA), 120–122

Mozambique, 101

Mundo Afro. See Organización Mundo Afro

Murphy, Colleen, 69–71

Mutual Support Group. See Grupo de Apoyo Muto

Myanmar, 1–2, 19–20

mythos of identity, 312–313, 317–318

narrative agency, 10–11

narrative analysis, 4

narrative architecture, 4

narrative complexity, 20–21, 329–330

in peacebuilding, 135

in post-genocide Rwanda, 213, 215–218

narrative envoy, 311

narrative landscapes, post-conflict, 5–8

narrative persuasion, 1–2

narratives, 20–22, 26, 332. See also formula stories; justice stories

Argentine armed left, confessions of, and, 30

Bangladeshi rape survivors and dynamics of, 225–226

binaries in post-conflict, 5–6

conflict, 1–5

core identity, 308–309, 320

destabilizing, 18–19

digital media, counternarratives in, 20

exclusion, 52–53

inclusive, 30

mythos of identity, 312–313, 317–318

public, of victims, 11–12

questioning, 329–330

in Rwanda, post-genocide, 202, 204–205, 213, 215–218

sacred struggle, Guatemala, 114–117, 125, 130–131, 135

simplification in, 5–6, 329–330

on SNCF, diversity of, 24–25, 54–55, 57

on social media, 1–2, 19–20

state-sanctioned, of rape, 28–29

of victims, 10–13, 22, 58

witness, in ECCC trials, 27

National Fund for the Neediest Genocide Survivors (FARG) (Rwanda), 212–213

National Truth Commission, Argentina (CONADEP), 283, 296

Nazism, 24–25, 53, 68–69, 323. See also French National Railways; Holocaust

exclusion narratives under, 52

German guilt for, 35–38, 53–54

German responsibility for, 38

justice heroes pursuing, 61–62

neak ta (Lord of the Iron Staff), 195–198

negative relational identity, 310

Nelson, Diane M., 125

neoliberalism, 188

Nicaragua, 145

Niezen, Ronald, xvi, 12, 49–50

Niger, 326–327

Nimetz, Matthew, 306–307, 316–318

Non Nil, 172, 177, 185–186, 189–190, 198–199

on microphone, 178–180, 184–185, 187–189

on scars, of Bou Meng, 170–171, 186

nulla poena sine culpa, principle of, 86–87

Oficina de Derechos Humanos del Arzobispado de Guatemala (Office of Human Rights of the Archdiocese of Guatemala) (ODHAG), 123–126

Ongwen, Dominic. See also Lord’s Resistance Army; Uganda, Northern

as child soldier, 25–26, 78–79, 82–83, 89–91, 98, 101–102, 105–106

local communities on, 102–103

in LRA, 25–26, 78–83, 90–91, 98, 101–102

responsibility of, 89–91

spiritual cosmology and, 78–79

trial of, 25–26, 78–79, 83, 89–91, 98, 101–103, 105–106

as victim, perpetrator and, 89–91, 98, 101–103, 105–106

open-source intelligence (OSINT), 247, 255–258

open-source investigation, 247–248, 250–251, 255–257, 263–264

heroes and, 268–270, 272–273

social media and, 257–258, 270

Organización Mundo Afro (Organization of Afro World), 153–156, 158–159

Ortuño, Edgardo, 158

OSINT. See open-source intelligence

Ott, Brian, 20

Ovalle, Cabrera, 125

Pakistan, 228–233, 235–236, 238–242

Palestinians, 10, 68, 311, 326

Payne, Leigh A., 280–281, 293, 302

peacebuilding, 20–21, 326–327, 332

binaries and, 326

narrative complexity in, 135

rape, survivors of wartime, and, 225–226, 228

Peasant Movement of the Highland. See Movimiento Campesino del Altiplano

Penados del Barrio, Próspero, 120–121

People’s Revolutionary Party, Argentina (ERP), 285, 297

perpetrator studies, 4, 332

perpetrators, 13–15, 20–22, 329

Arendt on, 53, 68

Argentine, 286–287, 298

child soldiers as, 79, 82, 89–106

complexity of, 21

confessions by, 280

constructing, 82–96

in digital media, 17–19

in digital witnessing, 271–272

documentarians on, 14

guilt of, 41

heroes as, 16

ideal, 60–63, 69–70

ideal victims and, 61–75, 96

identification process of, 85–86

impunity and understanding, 13

as inhuman, 88–89

of international crimes, 84–91

in Nazi Germany, 53, 68–69

in Northern Uganda, 82–84, 89–96, 100–103

Ongwen as victim and, 89–91, 98, 101–103, 105–106

in restorative justice, 15, 70

SNCF as, 24–25, 54–56, 60–63, 68–69

trauma of, 13–14

perpetrators, victims and. See victims, perpetrators and

Peru, 305–306

Peterson, Anna L., 115, 117

Peterson, Brandt G., 115, 117

Poland, 9–10, 13

polarization, 329–330

popular music, 328

positive peace, 53–55, 325–326, 332

positive relational identity, 310

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 181–182

Priyobhashini, Ferdousy, 235–242

Project for the National Police Historical Archives, Guatemala, 134–135

propaganda. See disinformation

proportional relationship, between perpetrators and victims, 69–70

Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaskic (ICTY), 84

Proyecto de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica (Recovery of Historical Memory Project) (REMHI), 123–126, 130–131

PTSD. See post-traumatic stress disorder

publics

binaries and, 7

disinformation and, 52

French, xvii

on heroes, 15–16

ideal victims preferred by, 58

simplification and, 5–6

The Question of German Guilt (Jaspers), 53–54

racial identity, politicized, 40–41

racism

Canadian Indigenous communities and, 23–24, 34–35, 44–45

Canadian settler identity and, 41–44

guilt and, 42–43, 45

label of, 18

Uruguay as white, myth of, 140–145

in US discourse, 23–24

Radio Mille Collines, 1, 330–331

railway workers (cheminots), 24–25

Ramazzini Imeri, Alvaro Leon El, 127

Ramirez, Beatriz, 152–153

rape

Japanese Rape Victims, World War II, 222–223

rapist, label of, 18

sex work and, 222–224, 226–228, 238, 242

state-sanctioned narratives of, 28–29

testimonies on, guidelines for recording, 234–235

as war crime, UN on, 227–228, 242

rape, in Bangladesh war of 1971. See Bangladesh war of 1971, rape in

Razakars (Bengali collaborators), 28–29, 229, 231–233, 239, 243–244

recognition

of Afro-Uruguayans, 26–27, 155–163

Canadian Indigenous struggle for, 35

reconciliation, 325–326

Bangladesh war of 1971 and, 230–231

Canadian Indigenous, 12, 35, 41–43, 47–50, 251

identity and, 41–43, 47–50

land acknowledgement in Canadian, 43

prescriptive model for, 23

relationality and, 49–50

responsibility and, 46–50

Rwandan commemoration and, 213–215, 217

Rwandan narratives of collective, 202

of symbol conflicts, 310–318, 320

recorded testimony, xv

Recovery of Historical Memory Project. See Proyecto de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica

relational identity, 30, 309–310, 314, 317–318

Relational Identity Theory (RIT), 308–310, 316–318, 320

relational transformation, 71

relationality, 30, 49–50, 79–80

REMHI. See Proyecto de Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica

Renamo, 101

resentment, 44–48

residential schools (Canada), xvi, 12, 35, 251, 325

resilience, 49–50, 74, 325

Resistance, French, 54–57, 63–64

responsibility, 47–49

Arendt on, 34–35, 37–39, 41, 47

of child soldiers, 89–100, 105

collective, 38–39, 41, 46–47, 49–50

collective criminal, in international law, 84–85, 87–88

guilt and, 34–39, 41, 46

individual, in international law, 86–87, 106

Jaspers on, 34–39

liability and, 46–47

of Ongwen, 89–91

restoration, post-conflict, 54, 70

restorative justice, 74

Coming to the Table, 319–320

complexity and, 329

harm and, 25–26

perpetrators in, 15, 70

restorative frames, introducing, 327–329

Rwandan commemoration and, 215–216

symbol conflicts and, 319–320

Restorative Justice for Oakland Youth (RJOY), 328

retributive justice, 6–7, 327

Kantian model and, 86–87

mens rea and, 25–26

perpetrators and victims paired in, 69–70

perpetrators in, 15, 70–71

Rhoubeid, Adal, 326–327

Richards, Paul, 99

right to truth, 122, 126–127

RIT. See Relational Identity Theory

RJOY. See Restorative Justice for Oakland Youth

Rodríguez, Romero Jorge, 152–156, 161

role idealization, 54–55, 66–69

Romero, Oscar, 117

Rosenberg, Sandy, 67–68

RPF. See Rwandan Patriotic Front

Russia

Bellingcat investigating, 255–256

disinformation of, 18, 29–30, 252–254, 267

in Syrian conflict, 18, 29–30, 248–249, 252–254, 266–270

Ukraine invasion by, 248, 273

Rwanda, 201, 203–205

cognitive dissonance in, 214–215, 323

commemoration in, 28, 202–203, 205–210, 213–218

FARG, 212–213

Gacaca courts, 210–211, 267

legal definition of victimhood in, 205–217

memory in, 202–203, 205–218

narratives in post-genocide, 202, 204–205, 213, 215–218

national identity in, 202–203, 213

political definition of victimhood, 205–217

Radio Mille Collines, 1, 330–331

social definition of victimhood in, 205–217

state-building, post-genocide, 203, 208–212

transitional justice, post-genocide, 203

trauma and identity construction in, 207

victim identity in, 202, 204–218

from victimhood, exclusion in, 202, 208, 213–215, 217

Zone Turquoise in, 212

Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 203–217

S-21 (Khmer Rouge torture center), 170–171

Bou Meng on, 172–200

Duch in, 175–176

Mam Nai on, 197–198

torture in, 170–171, 174–177, 183–184, 187, 193

sacred struggle narrative, in Guatemala, 114–117, 125, 130–131, 135

Sahel region, Niger, 326–327

Salvini, Matteo, 12–13

Sambath Reach, 196–197

San Marcos, Guatemala. See Guatemala

San Miguel Ixtahuacán, Guatemala. See Guatemala

Scilingo, Adolfo, 298

scorched earth policy, Guatemala, 116–117, 121–122

Second Vatican Council, 119–120

Serrano-Moreno, Juan E., 134

settler identity, 41–46

sex work, 222–224, 226–228, 238

Bangladesh war of 1971 and, 223–227, 235–236, 238–240, 242

in Vietnam War, US and, 227–228

sexual abuse, xvi

Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man (Taussig), 18–19

shame, 329

Shoah Foundation, 10–11

Sierra Leone, 92–94, 99, 328

simplification, 5–6, 23–24, 329–330

slavery, US, 319–320

smartphones, 256–257

SNCF. See French National Railways

Snelgrove, Corey, 42–45

Social and Cultural Association of Uruguay. See Asociación Cultural y Social del Uruguay

social media, 19

algorithms in, 20

content moderators on, 262–263, 268–269

counternarratives on, 20

digital witnessing, 257–258, 270

disinformation on, 5–6, 19, 52, 262–263, 331

Facebook, 1–2, 19–20, 331

fake news on, 5–6, 331

genocide on, 201–202

Myanmar atrocities and, 1–2, 19–20

narrative persuasion on, 1–2

open-source investigation and, 257–258, 270

Syrian conflict on, 258

trauma and, 268–269

Twitter, 1–2, 5–6, 20, 331

YouTube, 20, 262–263

South Africa

TRC, 267, 300–301

World Conference against Racism, Durban, 155–158, 161

Sovanratana (Venerable Sovanratana), 191–193

Spain, civil war in, 134

Special Court for Sierra Leone, 92–94

The Spectral Wound (Mookherjee), 234–235

spiritual cosmology, of LRA, 78–79, 100–101

state-building, 225–226

birangonas in Bangladeshi, 28–29

census in, 156

Rwandan, post-genocide, 203, 208–212

Stedman, Steven, 325

stories. See narrative

structural sin, 117

Studzinsky, Silke, 171–172, 177–178, 181–182, 186, 188

Suárez, Luis, 158–159

suicides, cluster. See Cross Lake First Nations Reserve, Canada, suicides at

super spreaders, of disinformation, 331–332

superheroes, 63–64

survivors. See also Bangladesh war of 1971, rape in; Rwanda

agency of, 10–11

complexity and, 71–73

descendants and, 324

epistemic injustice against, 10

Holocaust, xvi–xvii, 10–11, 68, 323, 327–328

Indonesian, testimonies of, 328

peacebuilding and wartime rape, 225–226, 228

sex work and testimony of, 223–224

as traitors, wartime rape, 225–228, 230–244

trauma of Guatemalan, 115–117

victims and, 8–11

symbol conflicts, 305, 319–320

bearing witness in, 312–314

brute force in, 305–306

collaborative problem solving in, 314–315, 320

Confederate Statues controversy, 30, 306–307, 318–320

dialogue in, 318

Ecuador and Peru, 305–306

looking for, 311, 318

Macedonia Naming Dispute, 30, 306–307, 316–318

mythos of identity in, 312–313, 317–318

name in, 306–307

political advocacy in, 305–306, 310–311

reconciliation of, 310–318, 320

RIT on, 308–310, 316–318

significance in, unpacking, 311–312, 316–318, 320

sympathy, 9–13, 57–58

Syrian Archive, xvi, 29–30, 255, 258–259, 261

accessibility, raising awareness, and, 265–266

collaboration networks of, 259–262

content acquisition by, 262–263

crowdsourcing and, 255–256

for digital evidence, procedures of, 261–266

organizations overlapping with, 249, 255–256, 259

preservation, long-term, of, 264–265

transitional justice and, 250–251, 266–268

truth affirmed by, 250–251, 267, 270–271, 274–275

verification, cataloguing, metadata enrichment by, 263–264

vernacularization, of human rights norms, and, 269–270

on war crimes, 248

Syrian conflict

chemical weapons used in, 248–249, 252, 259–261

digital witnessing on, 258

disinformation in, 18, 29–30, 252–254, 262–263, 267

hackers and, 262

impunity in, 252–255, 261

refugees from, 251–252, 266–268

Russia in, 18, 29–30, 248–249, 252–254, 266–270

transitional justice and, 251–252, 266–268

UNSC and, 248–249

war crimes in, 248–249, 252, 260–261, 266, 268–270

White Helmets in, 18, 252–254

Syrian Electronic Army, 262

Sztainbok, Vannina, 148–150

Taliban, 331

Tamen, Harriet, 73

Taussig, Michael, 18–19

temporality, in transitional justice imaginary, 181

tenements, Afro-Uruguayan (conventillos), 147–148, 158

testimony

on Bangladesh war of 1971, rape in, 223–227, 234–235, 242

of Bou Meng, at ECCC, 172–178, 180–181, 183–186, 189–192, 195–199

in Canadian TRC, 12

of Indonesian survivors, 328

on rape, guidelines for, 234–235

recorded, xv

of survivors, sex work and, 223–224

victimhood and, 10–13

Thiranagama, Sharika, 225–226

Thomson, S., 206

Thunder Bay, Canada, 47–48

Toronto, Canada, 47–48

torture

of Bou Meng, 170–171, 174–175, 177, 183–185, 187

Mam Nai on, 197–198

in S-21170–171, 174–177, 183–185, 187, 193

totalitarianism, 52–53, 74, 324

traitors

Bangladeshi wartime rape survivors as, 225–227, 230–236, 238–244

constitutive performativity and discourses of, 226–227, 231, 239–243

French women as, after World War II, 236–238

wartime rape survivors as, 225–228, 230–244

transformative justice, 25–26, 74. See also relational transformation

transitional justice, 328

Bangladesh war of 1971 and, 225–227, 230–231, 242

binaries and, 61, 198, 225–226

digital evidence databases and, 266–268

ECCC and, 181, 188–189, 195, 198

ideal perpetrators, ideal victims in, 61

Rwandan, post-genocide, 203

survivors and complexity in, 71–72

Syrian Archive and, 250–251, 266–268

Syrian conflict and, 251–252, 266–268

temporality and imaginary of, 181

translation, 179–185, 187–189, 195–196

trauma

of Bou Meng, 171–172, 181–183, 186–188

chosen traumas, 312

in Guatemala, as frame, 115–117

historical, paradigm of, 48–50

in identity construction, Rwandan, 207

of perpetrators, 13–14

social media and, 268–269

TRCs. See truth and reconciliation commissions

trial of the foreign, 181

trials, binaries in, 22–23

truth

disinformation and, 254–255

right to, 122, 126–127

Syrian Archive affirming, 250–251, 267, 270–271, 274–275

Truth and Indignation (Niezen), xvi, 12

truth and reconciliation commissions (TRCs), 7, 26, 286–287. See also National Truth Commission, Argentina

Canadian, on residential schools, xvi, 12, 35, 251

Gacaca courts, Rwanda, 210–211, 267

South African, 267, 300–301

truth commissions, Guatemala, 26

CEH, 122–123

REMHI, 123–126, 130–131

Tuaregs, 6

Tutu, Desmond, 300–301

Twitter, 1–2, 5–6, 20, 331

two-demons theory, 283–285, 289, 296–299

Uganda, Northern

girl child soldiers in, 103

ideal victims in, 96–100

perpetrators in, 82–84, 89–96, 100–103

victims and perpetrators in, 89–91, 97–106

Ukraine

digital archives and, 248, 273

Russian invasion of, 248, 273

UN. See United Nations

Uncle Meng. See Bou Meng

United Nations (UN)

Beijing Declaration of 1995, 227–228, 242

Comtrade, 259–260

in Macedonia Naming Dispute, 316–317

on Syrian conflict, findings of, 248–249, 252–255

on war crime, rape as, 227–228, 242

United Nations Security Council (UNSC), 248–249, 316–317

United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), 94–95

United States (US), 2

CIA, 118–119

Confederate Statues controversy, 30, 306–307, 318–320

at Guantanamo Bay, children held by, 95

Guatemala and, 118–120

Indigenous communities in, 48

Military Commissions Act, 95

on racism, discourse in, 23–24

slavery, 319–320

SNCF debates, hearings in, 55, 59, 62, 65–68, 72–73

in Vietnam War, sex work and, 227–228

Vietnam War veterans, 69–70

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), 73, 327–328

unity, discourses of, 324–325

UNSC. See United Nations Security Council

Unsettling Accounts (Payne), 280–281, 293, 302

UNTAET. See United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor

Uruguay, 140–141

Frente Amplio, 158

Indigenous communities in, 144–145, 150–152

military dictatorship, 142–143, 147–154, 158

Montevideo, 145, 147–150, 156

post-dictatorship period, 142–143, 151–154, 162

as white, myth of, 140–145

US. See United States

USHMM. See United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Vásquez, Juan Gabriel, 328

Venerable Sovanratana. See Sovanratana

vernacularization, of human rights norms, 269–270

victim centrism, xvi, 251

victim identity. See victimhood

victim studies, 4, 7, 332

victimhood, 20–21

agency and, 10–11, 13–14, 58

complexity in, 21, 27, 213, 215–216

as identity, 23–24, 34–35, 40, 43–44, 48–50

testimony and, 10–13

victimhood, Rwandan, 202, 204–205, 213, 215–216

commemoration and, 206–208, 217

exclusion from, 202, 208, 213–215, 217

legal definition of, 205–217

memory of genocide and, 205–218

political definition of, 205–217

social definition of, 205–217

victim identity, defining, 205–217

victims, 8–13, 203–205

Argentine armed left, confessions of, and, 284–285, 299

Bou Meng as, 198–199

concrete, 67–68

in digital witnessing, 255–256, 270–272

epistemic injustice against, 10

narratives of, 10–13, 18–19, 22, 58

public narratives of, 11–12

SNCF as, 54–56

survivors and, 8–11

sympathy for, 9–13, 57–58

victims, ideal, 9–10, 27, 57–59, 68

child soldiers as, 97–100

of Holocaust, 58–59, 66, 68

in Northern Uganda, 96–100

perpetrators and, 61–75, 96

victims, perpetrators and, 6–7, 67, 96, 198, 225–226, 329

Arendt on, 53

child soldiers as, 79, 89–106

construction of, 25–26, 79–82, 100–105

after genocide, binaries of, 207, 213

in Northern Uganda, 89–91, 97–106

overlapping roles of, 71, 332–333

proportional relationship of, 69–70

relationality of, 79–80

roles of, changing, 53

survivors, descendants, and, 324

in transitional justice, ideal, 61

victims as perpetrators, 12–13

Victims and Perpetrators in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity workshop, xvii–xviii

victors, 17

Vietnam War, 227–228

Vietnam War veterans, 69–70

Virginia, US, 319

Volkan, Vamik, 312

war, sex work in, 226–228

war crimes, 273

Bangladeshi tribunal on, 230–231

in Libya, 257–258

rape as, UN on, 227–228, 242

in Syrian conflict, 248–249, 252, 260–261, 266, 268–270

in Ukraine, 248, 273

War Writers Board, World War II, 2

war-heroines, Bangladeshi. See birangonas

Weld, Kirsten A., 116–117, 134–135

Werfalli, Mahmoud Mustafa Busayf Al-, 257–258

White Fragility (DiAngelo), 41

White Helmets, 18, 252–254

Williams, Thomas Chatterton, 40–41, 45

witness, bearing, 312–314

women, political movements of, 9–10

World Conference against Racism, Durban, South Africa, 155–158, 161

World War I, 255, 274–275

World War II, 16–17, 63–64

SNCF in. See French National Railways

as traitors, French women after, 236–238

War Writers Board in, 2

Yanagizawa-Drott, David, 330–331

Yazda, 249

YouTube, 20, 262–263

Yugoslavia, 306–307

Zaire, former, 206–217

Zia, Khaleda, 236

Zizek, Slavoj, 225–226, 239, 242–243

Zone Turquoise, Rwanda, 212

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