Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T05:46:19.379Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 20 - Personality Disorders

Diagnosis, Assessment, and Intervention Strategies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 February 2024

By
Vittorio Lingiardi ,
Laura Muzi  and
Tommaso Boldrini
Edited by
Andrea Fiorillo ,
Peter Falkai  and
Philip Gorwood
Andrea Fiorillo
Affiliation:
University of Campania “L. Vanvitelli”, Naples
Peter Falkai
Affiliation:
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Philip Gorwood
Affiliation:
Sainte-Anne Hospital, Paris
Get access

Summary

Personality disorders (PDs) are characterized by significant impairments to the self and interpersonal functioning, alongside pathological personality traits. One in ten people in the general population and one in two in clinical settings meet the diagnostic criteria for a PD. Comorbidity with other mental disorders is common, and the presence of a PD is the strongest explanation for recurrence, relapse, and poor prognosis in mental disorders. However, many individuals with a PD remain undetected in clinical practice and, as a result, are given ineffective or even harmful treatment. The ICD-11 classification of PDs represents a paradigm shift, replacing all PD subcategories with a single general description and differentiating individual PD expressions according to severity and personality trait domains. This classification is aligned with the DSM-5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders, though the latter is not intended for general use. In addition to discussing the aforementioned issues, this chapter reviews the clinical descriptions of and empirical evidence for PDs (discussing them individually, in line with the DSM-5 classification) and presents meta-analytic data on the effectiveness of evidence-based psychotherapy for PDs.

Keywords

personalityassessmentpersonality disordersdiagnostic systempsychotherapy treatment
Type
Chapter
Information
Mental Health Research and Practice
From Evidence to Experience
 , pp. 355 - 392
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2022.Google Scholar
Kendler, KS, Aggen, SH, Czajkowski, N, et al. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for DSM-IV personality disorders: a multivariate twin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65: 1438–1446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jang, KL, Choi, F. Issues and new directions in personality disorder genetics. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 29–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, CC, Vaccaro, DH, Rose, NLJ, Kessler, LE, Hazlett, EA. Neuroimaging in personality disorders. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 3–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newton-Howes, G, Tyrer, P, Anagnostakis, K, et al. The prevalence of personality disorder, its comorbidity with mental state disorders, and its clinical significance in community mental health teams. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2010; 45: 453–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torgersen, S, Kringlen, E, Cramer, V. The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 590–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coid, J, Yang, M, Tyrer, P, Roberts, A, Ullrich, S. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 188: 423–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weissman, MM. The epidemiology of personality disorders: A 1990 update. J Pers Disord 1993; 7: 44–62.Google Scholar
Volkert, J, Gablonski, T-C, Rabung, S. Prevalence of personality disorders in the general adult population in Western countries: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2018; 213: 709–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evaluation I for HM and Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 (GBD 2016) Results. 2017. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation Seattle. https://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-2016.Google Scholar
Moran, P, Jenkins, R, Tylee, A, Blizard, R, Mann, A. The prevalence of personality disorder among UK primary care attenders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000; 102: 52–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beckwith, H, Moran, PF, Reilly, J. Personality disorder prevalence in psychiatric outpatients: A systematic literature review. Personal Ment Health 2014; 8: 91–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazel, S, Yu, R. Psychotic disorders and repeat offending: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 2011; 37: 800–810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newton-Howes, G, Weaver, T, Tyrer, P. Attitudes of staff towards patients with personality disorder in community mental health teams. Aust New Zeal J Psychiatry 2008; 42: 572–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Psychiatrists. BPS and RC of. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009a). Borderline personality disorder: The NICE guideline on treatment and management. London.Google Scholar
Psychiatrists. BPS and RC of. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (2009b). Antisocial personality disorder: Treatment, management and prevention. London.Google Scholar
Bowen, M. Stigma: A linguistic analysis of personality disorder in the UK popular press, 2008–2017. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2019; 26: 244–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheehan, L, Nieweglowski, K, Corrigan, P. The stigma of personality disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016; 18: 11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snowden, P, Kane, E. Personality disorder: No longer a diagnosis of exclusion. Psychiatr Bull 2003; 27: 401–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skodol, AE, Bender, DS, Morey, LC, et al. Personality disorder types proposed for DSM-5. J Pers Disord 2011; 25: 136–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, LA, Harrison, JA. Assessment instruments. In Livesley, WJ (Ed.), Handbook of Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment. 2001. The Guilford Press. pp. 277–306.Google Scholar
Clark, LA, Shapiro, JL, Daly, E, et al. Empirically validated diagnostic and assessment methods. In Livesley, WJ, Larstone, R (Ed.), Handbook of Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment. 2018. The Guilford Press. pp. 341–366.Google Scholar
Akhtar, S. Immigration and acculturation: Mourning, adaptation, and the next generation. 2010. Jason Aronson.Google Scholar
Tummala-Narra, P. Psychoanalytic theory and cultural competence in psychotherapy. 2016. American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alarcon, RD. Personality disorders and culture: Conflict at the boundaries. Transcult Psychiatry 1997; 34: 453–461.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frankenburg, FR, Zanarini, MC. The association between borderline personality disorder and chronic medical illnesses, poor health-related lifestyle choices, and costly forms of health care utilization. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 1660–1665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, P, Romaniuk, H, Coffey, C, et al. The influence of personality disorder on the future mental health and social adjustment of young adults: A population-based, longitudinal cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry 2016; 3: 636–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hiroeh, U, Appleby, L, Mortensen, PB, Dunn, G. Death by homicide, suicide, and other unnatural causes in people with mental illness: A population-based study. Lancet 2001; 358: 2110–2112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P, Mitchard, S, Methuen, C, Ranger, M. Treatment rejecting and treatment seeking personality disorders: Type R and Type S. J Pers Disord 2003; 17: 263–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P. Personality dysfunction is the cause of recurrent non‐cognitive mental disorder: A testable hypothesis. Personal Ment Health 2015; 9: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, P, Crawford, TN, Johnson, JG, Kasen, S. The children in the community study of developmental course of personality disorder. J Pers Disord 2005; 19: 466–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Copeland, WE, Shanahan, L, Costello, EJ, Angold, A. Childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders as predictors of young adult disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009; 66: 764–772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, TN, Cohen, P, First, MB, et al. Comorbid Axis I and Axis II disorders in early adolescence: Outcomes 20 years later. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65: 641–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P. Personality diatheses: A superior explanation than disorder. Psychol Med 2007; 37: 1521–1525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tyrer, P. Personality diathesis explains the interrelationships between personality disorder and other mental conditions. World Psychiatry 2011; 10: 108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilsenroth, MJ, Katz, M, Tanzilli, A. Psychotherapy research and the psychodynamic diagnostic manual (PDM-2). Psychoanal Psychol 2018; 35: 320–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westen, D, Harnden-Fischer, J. Personality profiles in eating disorders: Rethinking the distinction between axis I and axis II. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 547–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Telch, MJ, Kamphuis, JH, Schmidt, NB. The effects of comorbid personality disorders on cognitive behavioral treatment for panic disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2011; 45: 469–474.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fournier, JC, DeRubeis, RJ, Shelton, RC, et al. Antidepressant medications v. cognitive therapy in people with depression with or without personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2008; 192: 124–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newton-Howes, G, Tyrer, P, Johnson, T, et al. Influence of personality on the outcome of treatment in depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Pers Disord 2014; 28: 577–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D. Divergences between clinical and research methods for assessing personality disorders: Implications for research and the evolution of Axis II. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 895–903.Google ScholarPubMed
Berrios, GE. European views on personality disorders: A conceptual history. Compr Psychiatry 1993; 34: 14–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fossati, A. European perspectives on personality disorders: Knowing a complex history for a (hopefully) bright future. Personal Ment Health 2011; 5: 132–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kretschmer, E. Physique and Character: An Investigation of the Nature of Constitution and of the Theory of Temperament. 1936. Humanities Press.Google Scholar
Westen, D, Gabbard, GO, Ortigo, KM. Psychoanalytic approaches to personality. In John, OP, Robins, RW, Pervin, LA (Eds.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research. 2008. The Guilford Press, pp. 61–113.Google Scholar
Eysenck, HJ. Types of personality: A factorial study of seven hundred neurotics. J Ment Sci 1944; 90: 851–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eysenck, HJ. The Biological Basis of Personality. Thomas. 1967.Google Scholar
Waldron, S, Moscovitz, S, Lundin, J, et al. Evaluating the outcomes of psychotherapies: The personality health index. Psychoanal Psychol 2011; 28: 363–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed). 1980. American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed., Text Revision. 2000. American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Tyrer, P, Reed, GM, Crawford, MJ. Classification, assessment, prevalence, and effect of personality disorder. Lancet 2015; 385: 717–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milinkovic, MS, Tiliopoulos, N. A systematic review of the clinical utility of the DSM–5 section III alternative model of personality disorder. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2020; 11: 377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, RF, Natoli, AP. Clinical utility of categorical and dimensional perspectives on personality pathology: A meta-analytic review. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2019; 10: 479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, LA, Nuzum, H, Ro, E. Manifestations of personality impairment severity: Comorbidity, course/prognosis, psychosocial dysfunction, and “borderline” personality features. Curr Opin Psychol 2018; 21: 117–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, MJ, Koldobsky, N, Mulder, R, Tyrer, P. Classifying personality disorder according to severity. J Pers Disord 2011; 25: 321–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bender, DS, Morey, LC, Skodol, AE. Toward a model for assessing level of personality functioning in DSM–5, part I: A review of theory and methods. J Pers Assess 2011; 93: 332–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulder, RT, Newton-Howes, G, Crawford, MJ, Tyrer, PJ. The central domains of personality pathology in psychiatric patients. J Pers Disord 2011; 25: 364–377.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopwood, CJ, Malone, JC, Ansell, EB, et al. Personality assessment in DSM-5: Empirical support for rating severity, style, and traits. J Pers Disord 2011; 25: 305–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. ICD-11, the 11th Revision of the International Classification of Diseases. 2018.Google Scholar
Newton-Howes, G, Clark, LA, Chanen, A. Personality disorder across the life course. Lancet 2015; 385: 727–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharp, C, Wright, AGC, Fowler, JC, et al. The structure of personality pathology: Both general (“g”) and specific (“s”) factors? J Abnorm Psychol 2015; 124: 387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colli, A, Tanzilli, A, Dimaggio, G, Lingiardi, V. Patient personality and therapist response: An empirical investigation. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171: 102–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, L, Markon, KE, Clark, LA. Toward a theory of distinct types of “impulsive” behaviors: A meta-analysis of self-report and behavioral measures. Psychol Bull 2014; 140: 374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livesley, WJ. An empirically-based classification of personality disorder. J Pers Disord 2011; 25: 397–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, PT, McCrae, RR. The NEO inventories. In Archer, RP, Smith, SR (Eds.), Personality Assessment. 2008. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, pp. 213–245.Google Scholar
Crego, C, Widiger, TA. The conceptualization and assessment of schizotypal traits: A comparison of the FFSI and PID-5. J Pers Disord 2017; 31: 606–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, MF. Schizotypy, schizotypic psychopathology and schizophrenia. 2018. Wiley Online Library.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watters, CA, Bagby, RM. A meta-analysis of the five-factor internal structure of the Personality Inventory for DSM–5. Psychol Assess 2018; 30: 1255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oltmanns, JR. Personality traits in the international classification of diseases 11th revision (ICD-11). Curr Opin Psychiatry 2021; 34: 48–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oltmanns, JR, Widiger, TA. A self-report measure for the ICD-11 dimensional trait model proposal: The personality inventory for ICD-11. Psychol Assess 2018; 30: 154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, TA, Sellbom, M. Further validation of the Personality Disorder Severity for ICD-11 (PDS- ICD-11 ) scale in a community mental health sample. Psychol Assess Advance online publication. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-Dajani, N, Gralnick, TM, Bagby, RM. A psychometric review of the Personality Inventory for DSM–5 (PID–5): Current status and future directions. J Pers Assess 2016; 98: 62–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morey, LC, McCredie, MN, Bender, DS, Skodol, AE. Criterion A: Level of personality functioning in the alternative DSM–5 model for personality disorders. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2022; 13: 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, RF, Derringer, J, Markon, KE, et al. Initial construction of a maladaptive personality trait model and inventory for DSM-5. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2011; 136: 1879.Google Scholar
Bach, B, Maples-Keller, JL, Bo, S, Simonsen, E. The alternative DSM–5 personality disorder traits criterion: A comparative examination of three self-report forms in a Danish population. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2016; 7: 124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bach, B, Sellbom, M, Kongerslev, M, et al. Deriving ICD‐11 personality disorder domains from dsm‐5 traits: Initial attempt to harmonize two diagnostic systems. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2017; 136: 108–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellbom, M, Solomon-Krakus, S, Bach, B, Bagby, RM. Validation of Personality Inventory for DSM–5 (PID-5) algorithms to assess ICD-11 personality trait domains in a psychiatric sample. Psychol Assess 2020; 32: 40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerber, A, Schultze, M, Müller, S, et al. Development of a short and ICD-11 compatible measure for DSM-5 maladaptive personality traits using ant colony optimization algorithms. Assessment 2019; 1073191120971848.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lingiardi, V, McWilliams, N. Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual: PDM-2, 2nd ed. 2017. The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lingiardi, V, McWilliams, N. Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual: PDM-3, 3rd ed. 2023. World Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Natoli, AP. The DSM’s reconnection to psychoanalytic theory through the alternative model for personality disorders. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 2019; 67: 1023–1045.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kernberg, O. Severe Personality Disorders (Psychotherapeutic Strategies). Yale University Press. 1984.Google Scholar
McWilliams, N, Grenyer, BFS, Shedler, J. Personality in PDM-2: Controversial issues. Psychoanal Psychol 2018; 35: 299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westen, D, Waller, NG, Shedler, J, Blagov, PS. Dimensions of personality and personality pathology: Factor structure of the shedler-westen assessment procedure-II (Swap-II). J Pers Disord 2014; 28: 281–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shedler, J, Westen, D. The Shedler–Westen Assessment Procedure (SWAP): Making personality diagnosis clinically meaningful. J Pers Assess 2007; 89: 41–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerns, JG. Cluster A Personality Disorders. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press; pp. 195–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Triebwasser, J, Chemerinski, E, Roussos, P, Siever, LJ. Paranoid personality disorder. J Pers Disord 2013; 27: 795–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopwood, CJ, Thomas, KM. Paranoid and schizoid personality disorders. In Widiger, TA (ed). The Oxford handbook of personality disorders. 2012. Oxford University Press. pp. 582–602. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199735013.013.0027.Google Scholar
Millon, T. Disorders of Personality: DSM-III-Axis II. 1981. John Wiley & Sons Inc.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P, Boxall, M, Cheung, M, Irons, C. The relation of paranoid ideation and social anxiety in a mixed clinical population. Clin Psychol Psychother 2005; 12: 124–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, DP, Useda, JD. Paranoid personality disorder. In O’Donohue, W, Fowler, KA, Lilienfeld, SO (Eds.), Personality Disorders: Toward the DSM-V. 2007. Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 41–62. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483328980.n3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, JG, Cohen, P, Kasen, S, Brook, JS. Personality disorder traits associated with risk for unipolar depression during middle adulthood. Psychiatry Res 2005; 136: 113–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bollinger, AR, Riggs, DS, Blake, DD, Ruzek, JI. Prevalence of personality disorders among combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress Off Publ Int Soc Trauma Stress Stud 2000; 13: 255–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopwood, CJ, Baker, KL, Morey, LC. Extratest validity of selected personality assessment inventory scales and indicators in an inpatient substance abuse setting. J Pers Assess 2008; 90: 574–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Overholser, JC, Stockmeier, C, Dilley, G, Freiheit, S. Personality disorders in suicide attempters and completers: Preliminary findings. Arch Suicide Res 2002; 6: 123–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cramer, V, Torgersen, S, Kringlen, E. Personality disorders and quality of life: A population study. Compr Psychiatry 2006; 47: 178–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, RJ. Mistrustful and misunderstood: A review of paranoid personality disorder. Curr Behav Neurosci Reports 2017; 4: 151–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bleuler, E. Die probleme der schizoidie und der syntonie. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurol und Psychiatr 1922; 78: 373–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraepelin, E. Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia. Chicago Medical Book Co., 1921.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Triebwasser, J, Chemerinski, E, Roussos, P, Siever, LJ. Schizoid personality disorder. J Pers Disord 2012; 26: 919–926.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winarick, DJ, Bornstein, RF. Toward resolution of a longstanding controversy in personality disorder diagnosis: Contrasting correlates of schizoid and avoidant traits. Pers Individ Dif 2015; 79: 25–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mittal, VA, Kalus, O, Bernstein, DP, Siever, LJ. In O’Donohue, W, Fowler, KA, Lilienfeld, SO (Eds.), Personality Disorders: Toward the DSM-V. 2007. Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 63–79. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483328980.n4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenzenweger, MF, Willett, JB. Does change in temperament predict change in schizoid personality disorder? A methodological framework and illustration from the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders. Dev Psychopathol 2009; 21: 1211–1231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spitzer, RL, Endicott, J, Gibbon, M. Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia: The development of criteria. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979; 36: 17–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lingiardi, V, Boldrini, T. The diagnostic dilemma of psychosis: Reviewing the historical case of pseudoneurotic schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 2019; 207: 577–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kwapil, TR, Barrantes-Vidal, N. Schizotypal personality disorder: An integrative review. In Widiger, TA (ed). The Oxford handbook of personality disorders. 2012. Oxford University Press. pp. 437–477. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199735013.013.0021.Google Scholar
Debbané, M, Barrantes-Vidal, N. Schizotypy from a developmental perspective. Schizophr Bull 2015; 41: S386–S395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D, Shedler, J, Bradley, B, DeFife, JA. An empirically derived taxonomy for personality diagnosis: Bridging science and practice in conceptualizing personality. Am J Psychiatry 2012; 169: 273–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Booules-Katri, TM, Pedreño, C, Navarro, JB, Pamias, M, Obiols, JE. Theory of mind (ToM) performance in high functioning autism (HFA) and schizotypal–schizoid personality disorders (SSPD) patients. J Autism Dev Disord 2019; 49: 3376–3386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shedler, J, Westen, D. Refining personality disorder diagnosis: Integrating science and practice. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1350–1365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, MF. Epidemiology of personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2008; 31: 395–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmerman, M, Rothschild, L, Chelminski, I. The prevalence of DSM-IV personality disorders in psychiatric outpatients. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162: 1911–1918.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coolidge, FL, Thede, LL, Jang, KL. Are personality disorders psychological manifestations of executive function deficits? Bivariate heritability evidence from a twin study. Behav Genet 2004; 34: 75–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poyurovsky, M, Koran, LMM. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) with schizotypy vs. schizophrenia with OCD: Diagnostic dilemmas and therapeutic implications. J Psychiatr Res. 2005., 39: 399–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boldrini, T, Tanzilli, A, Pontillo, M, et al. Comorbid personality disorders in individuals with an at-risk mental state for psychosis: A meta-analytic review. Front Psychiatry 2019; 10: 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirchner, SK, Roeh, A, Nolden, J, Hasan, A. Diagnosis and treatment of schizotypal personality disorder: Evidence from a systematic review. NPJ Schizophr 2018; 4: 1–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, JD, Lynam, DR, Hyatt, CS, Campbell, WK. Controversies in narcissism. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2017; 13: 291–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cain, NM, Pincus, AL, Ansell, EB. Narcissism at the crossroads: Phenotypic description of pathological narcissism across clinical theory, social/personality psychology, and psychiatric diagnosis. Clin Psychol Rev 2008; 28: 638–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinel, P. Traité sur l’Alienation mentale. 1801.Google Scholar
Prichard, JC. A Treatise on Insanity and Other Disorders Affecting the Mind. 1837. Haswell, Barrington, and Haswell.Google Scholar
Cleckley, HM. The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues about the So-called Psychopathic Personality. 1964. Ravenio Books.Google Scholar
Brislin, SJ, Patrick, CJ. An integrative biobehavioral trait perspective on antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108333931.045.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, RD, Neumann, CS. Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2008; 4: 217–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hare, RD, Neumann, CS, Widiger, TA. Psychopathy. In Widiger, TA (ed). The Oxford Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2012. Oxford University Press. pp. 478–504. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199735013.013.0022.Google Scholar
Venables, NC, Hall, JR, Patrick, CJ. Differentiating psychopathy from antisocial personality disorder: A triarchic model perspective. Psychol Med 2014; 44: 1005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wygant, DB, Engle, JE, Sellbom, M. Further examination of DSM‐5 antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy: Findings from a female correctional sample. Personal Ment Health 2020; 14: 388–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klipfel, KM, Kosson, DS. The relationship between grandiosity, psychopathy, and narcissism in an offender sample. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 2018; 62: 2687–2708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, B, Sleep, CE, Lynam, DR, Miller, JD. Evaluating the instantiation of narcissism components in contemporary measures of psychopathy. Assessment 2021; 28: 15–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonagy, P, Yakeley, J, Gardner, T, et al. Mentalization for Offending Adult Males (MOAM): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial to evaluate mentalization-based treatment for antisocial personality disorder in male offenders on community probation. Trials 2020; 21: 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taubner, S, White, LO, Zimmermann, J, Fonagy, P, Nolte, T. Attachment-related mentalization moderates the relationship between psychopathic traits and proactive aggression in adolescence. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2013; 41: 929–938.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, MF, Lane, MC, Loranger, AW, Kessler, RC. DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62: 553–564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trull, TJ, Jahng, S, Tomko, RL, Wood, PK, Sher, KJ. Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: gender, prevalence, and comorbidity with substance dependence disorders. J Pers Disord 2010; 24: 412–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, KB, Few, LR, Bucholz, KK. Epidemiology, comorbidity, and behavioral genetics of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy. Psychiatr Ann 2015; 45: 195–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yu, R, Geddes, JR, Fazel, S. Personality disorders, violence, and antisocial behavior: A systematic review and meta-regression analysis. J Pers Disord 2012; 26: 775–792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wormith, JS, Olver, ME, Stevenson, HE, Girard, L. The long-term prediction of offender recidivism using diagnostic, personality, and risk/need approaches to offender assessment. Psychol Serv 2007; 4: 287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skeem, JL, Polaschek, DLL, Patrick, CJ, Lilienfeld, SO. Psychopathic personality: Bridging the gap between scientific evidence and public policy. Psychol Sci Public Interes 2011; 12: 95–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi-Kain, LW, Albert, EB, Gunderson, JG. Evidence-based treatments for borderline personality disorder: Implementation, integration, and stepped care. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2016; 24: 342–356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, JG, Herpertz, SC, Skodol, AE, Torgersen, S, Zanarini, MC. Borderline personality disorder. Nat Rev Dis Prim 2018; 4: 1–21.Google ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, JG, Fruzzetti, A, Unruh, B, Choi-Kain, L. Competing theories of borderline personality disorder. J Pers Disord 2018; 32: 148–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leichsenring, F, Leibing, E, Kruse, J, New, AS, Leweke, F. Borderline personality disorder. Lancet 2011; 377: 74–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meehan, KB, Clarkin, JF, Lenzenweger, MF. Conceptual models of borderline personality disorder, Part 1: Overview of prevailing and emergent models. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2018; 41: 535–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meehan, KB, Clarkin, JF, Lenzenweger, MF. Conceptual models of borderline personality disorder, Part 2: A process approach and its implications. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2018; 41: 549–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spitzer, RL, First, MB, Shedler, J, Westen, D, Skodol, AE. Clinical utility of five dimensional systems for personality diagnosis: a “consumer preference” study. J Nerv Ment Dis 2008; 196: 356–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zandersen, M, Henriksen, MG, Parnas, J. A recurrent question: What is borderline? J Pers Disord 2019; 33: 341–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millon, T, Millon, CM, Meagher, SE, Grossman, SD, Ramnath, R. Personality Disorders in Modern Life. 2012. John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Stern, A. Psychoanalytic investigation of and therapy in the border line group of neuroses. Psychoanal Q 1938; 7: 467–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knight, RP. Borderline states. In Loewenstein, RM (Ed.), Drives, affects, behavior. 1953. International Universities Press, Inc., pp. 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/10633-012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kernberg, O. Borderline personality organization. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 1967; 15: 641–685.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grinker, RR. Diagnosis of borderlines: A discussion. Schizophr Bull 1979; 5: 47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, JG, Singer, MT. Defining borderline patients: An overview. Am J Psychiatry 1975; 132: 1–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Fitzpatrick, S, Liebman, RE, Monson, CM. The borderline interpersonal-affective systems (BIAS) model: Extending understanding of the interpersonal context of borderline personality disorder. Clin Psychol Rev 2021; 84: 101983.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gratz, KL, Rosenthal, MZ, Tull, MT, Lejuez, CW, Gunderson, JG. An experimental investigation of emotional reactivity and delayed emotional recovery in borderline personality disorder: The role of shame. Compr Psychiatry 2010; 51: 275–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, MM. Dialectical behavior therapy for treatment of borderline personality disorder: Implications for the treatment of substance abuse. NIDA Res Monogr 1993; 137: 201.Google ScholarPubMed
Peters, JR, Geiger, PJ. Borderline personality disorder and self-conscious affect: Too much shame but not enough guilt? Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2016; 7: 303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, AL, Dixon-Gordon, KL, Butler, SM, Walters, KN. Emotional reactivity to social rejection versus a frustration induction among persons with borderline personality features. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2015; 6: 88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzpatrick, S, Kuo, JR. A comprehensive examination of delayed emotional recovery in borderline personality disorder. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2015; 47: 51–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daros, AR, Williams, GE. A meta-analysis and systematic review of emotion-regulation strategies in borderline personality disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2019; 27: 217–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarus, SA, Cheavens, JS. An examination of social network quality and composition in women with and without borderline personality disorder. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2017; 8: 340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Euler, S, Nolte, T, Constantinou, M, et al. Interpersonal problems in borderline personality disorder: Associations with mentalizing, emotion regulation, and impulsiveness. J Pers Disord 2021; 35: 177–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wedig, MM, Frankenburg, FR, Reich, DB, Fitzmaurice, G, Zanarini, MC. Predictors of suicide threats in patients with borderline personality disorder over 16 years of prospective follow-up. Psychiatry Res 2013; 208: 252–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mangassarian, S, Sumner, L, O’Callaghan, E. Sexual impulsivity in women diagnosed with borderline personality disorder: A review of the literature. Sex Addict Compulsivity 2015; 22: 195–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagby, RM, Vachon, DD, Bulmash, E, Quilty, LC. Personality disorders and pathological gambling: A review and re-examination of prevalence rates. J Pers Disord 2008; 22: 191–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selby, EA, Ward, AC, Joiner, TE. Dysregulated eating behaviors in borderline personality disorder: Are rejection sensitivity and emotion dysregulation linking mechanisms? Int J Eat Disord 2010; 43: 667–670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newhill, CE, Eack, SM, Mulvey, EP. A growth curve analysis of emotion dysregulation as a mediator for violence in individuals with and without borderline personality disorder. J Pers Disord 2012; 26: 452–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adler, JM, Chin, ED, Kolisetty, AP, Oltmanns, TF. The distinguishing characteristics of narrative identity in adults with features of borderline personality disorder: An empirical investigation. J Pers Disord 2012; 26: 498–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luyten, P, Campbell, C, Fonagy, P. Borderline personality disorder, complex trauma, and problems with self and identity: A social-communicative approach. J Pers 2020; 88: 88–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, JG, Lyons-Ruth, K. BPD’s interpersonal hypersensitivity phenotype: A gene-environment-developmental model. J Pers Disord 2008; 22: 22–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richetin, J, Preti, E, Costantini, G, De Panfilis, C. The centrality of affective instability and identity in Borderline Personality Disorder: Evidence from network analysis. PLoS One 2017; 12: e0186695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateman, AW, Fonagy, P. Mentalization-based treatment of BPD. J Pers Disord 2004; 18: 36–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shah, R, Zanarini, MC. Comorbidity of borderline personality disorder: Current status and future directions. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2018; 41: 583–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlashan, TH, Grilo, CM, Skodol, AE, et al. The collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study: Baseline axis I/II and II/II diagnostic co-occurrence. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000; 102: 256–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeifman, RJ, Landy, MSH, Liebman, RE, Fitzpatrick, S, Monson, CM. Optimizing treatment for comorbid borderline personality disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review of psychotherapeutic approaches and treatment efficacy. Clin Psychol Rev 2021; 86: 102030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krause-Utz, A, Frost, R, Chatzaki, E, et al. Dissociation in borderline personality disorder: Recent experimental, neurobiological studies, and implications for future research and treatment. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2021; 23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmaling, KB, Fales, JL. The association between borderline personality disorder and somatoform disorders: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Clin Psychol Sci Pract 2018; 25: e12244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayes, A, Parker, G, Paris, J. Differential diagnosis of bipolar II disorder and borderline personality disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2019; 21: 125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farstad, SM, McGeown, LM, von Ranson, KM. Eating disorders and personality, 2004–2016: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 2016; 46: 91–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trull, TJ, Freeman, LK, Vebares, TJ, et al. Borderline personality disorder and substance use disorders: An updated review. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregulation 2018; 5: 1–12.Google ScholarPubMed
Shah, R, Zanarini, MC. Comorbidity of borderline personality disorder: Current status and future directions. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2018; 41: 583–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkert, J, Gablonski, TC, Rabung, S. Prevalence of personality disorders in the general adult population in Western countries: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2018; 213: 709–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, KL, Fanaian, M, Kotze, B, Grenyer, BFS. Mental health presentations to acute psychiatric services: 3-year study of prevalence and readmission risk for personality disorders compared with psychotic, affective, substance or other disorders. BJPsych Open 2019; 5: e1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iliakis, EA, Ilagan, GS, Choi-Kain, LW. Dropout rates from psychotherapy trials for borderline personality disorder: A meta-analysis. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2021; 12: 193–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cristea, IA, Gentili, C, Cotet, CD, et al. Efficacy of psychotherapies for borderline personality disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2017; 74: 319–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caligor, E, Levy, KN, Yeomans, FE. Narcissistic personality disorder: Diagnostic and clinical challenges. Am J Psychiatry 2015; 172: 415–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pincus, AL, Roche, MJ, Good, EW. Narcissistic personality disorder and pathological narcissism. In Blaney, PH, Krueger, RF, Millon, T (Eds.), Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology. 2015. Oxford University Press, pp. 791–813.Google Scholar
Gabbard, GO, Crisp‐Han, H. The many faces of narcissism. World Psychiatry 2016; 15: 115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ronningstam, E. Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder: Recent research and clinical implications. Curr Behav Neurosci Reports 2016; 3: 34–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kernberg, OF. The almost untreatable narcissistic patient. J Am Psychoanal Assoc 2007; 55: 503–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kjærvik, SL, Bushman, BJ. The link between narcissism and aggression: A meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull 2021, 147: 477–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krusemark, EA, Campbell, WK, Crowe, ML, Miller, JD. Comparing self-report measures of grandiose narcissism, vulnerable narcissism, and narcissistic personality disorder in a male offender sample. Psychol Assess 2018; 30: 984–990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russ, E, Shedler, J, Bradley, R, Westen, D. Refining the construct of narcissistic personality disorder: Diagnostic criteria and subtypes. Am J Psychiatry 2008; 165: 1473–1481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, JD, Campbell, WK, Pilkonis, PA. Narcissistic personality disorder: Relations with distress and functional impairment. Compr Psychiatry 2007; 48: 170–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kealy, D, Ogrodniczuk, JS. Narcissistic interpersonal problems in clinical practice. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2011; 19: 290–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baskin-Sommers, A, Krusemark, E, Ronningstam, E. Empathy in narcissistic personality disorder: From clinical and empirical perspectives. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2014; 5: 323–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vater, A, Ritter, K, Schröder-Abé, M, et al. When grandiosity and vulnerability collide: Implicit and explicit self-esteem in patients with narcissistic personality disorder. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2013; 44: 37–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilsenroth, MJ, Holdwick, DJ, Castlebury, FD, Blais, MA. The effects of DSM-IV cluster B personality disorder symptoms on the termination and continuation of psychotherapy. Psychother Theory, Res Pract Train 1998; 35: 163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, MA, Waller, G, Pistrang, N. The impact of narcissism on drop-out from cognitive-behavioral therapy for the eating disorders: A pilot study. J Nerv Ment Dis 2009; 197: 278–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preti, E, Rottoli, C, Dainese, S, et al. Personality structure features associated with early dropout in patients with substance-related disorders and comorbid personality disorders. Int J Ment Health Addict 2015; 13: 536–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellison, WD, Levy, KN, Cain, NM, Ansell, EB, Pincus, AL. The impact of pathological narcissism on psychotherapy utilization, initial symptom severity, and early-treatment symptom change: A naturalistic investigation. J Pers Assess 2013; 95: 291–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magidson, JF, Collado-Rodriguez, A, Madan, A, et al. Addressing narcissistic personality features in the context of medical care: Integrating diverse perspectives to inform clinical practice. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2012; 3: 196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakkevig, JF, Karterud, S. Is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, histrionic personality disorder category a valid construct? Compr Psychiatry 2010; 51: 462–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Novais, F, Araújo, A, Godinho, P. Historical roots of histrionic personality disorder. Front Psychol 2015; 6: 1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, B, Campbell, WK. A call for scientific caution: Commentary on narcissistic and histrionic personality disorders. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 292–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blagov, PS, Westen, D. Questioning the coherence of histrionic personality disorder: Borderline and hysterical personality subtypes in adults and adolescents. J Nerv Ment Dis 2008; 196: 785–797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blashfield, RK, Reynolds, SM, Stennett, B. The death of histrionic personality disorder. In Widiger, TA (ed). The Oxford Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2012. Oxford University Press. pp. 603–627.Google Scholar
McWilliams, N. Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. 2011. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Horowitz, J M. Hysterical personality: Cognitive structure and the processes of change. Int Rev Psychoanal 1977; 4: 23–49.Google Scholar
Shapiro, D. Neurotic Styles. 1965. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Dawood, S, Wu, LZ, Bliton, CF, Pincus, AL. Narcissistic and histrionic personality disorders. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 277–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leichsenring, F, Klein, S, Salzer, S. The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy in specific mental disorders: A 2013 update of empirical evidence. Contemp Psychoanal 2014; 50: 89–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lilliengren, P, Philips, B, Falkenström, F, et al. Comparing the treatment process in successful and unsuccessful cases in two forms of psychotherapy for cluster c personality disorders. Psychotherapy 2019; 56: 285–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keefe, JR, Derubeis, RJ. Changing character: A narrative review of personality change in psychotherapies for personality disorder. Psychother Res 2019; 29: 752–769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanislow, CA, Hector, AD. Cluster C anxious-fearful personality pathology and avoidance. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 302–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoch, A. Constitutional factors in the demenetia praecox group. Review of Neurological Psychiatry 1910; 8: 463–474.Google Scholar
Kretschmer, E. Physique and Character: An Investigation of the Nature of Constitution and of the Theory. 2013. Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millon, T. Avoidant personality disorder: A brief review of issues and data. J Pers Disord 1991; 5: 353–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sørensen, KD, Wilberg, T, Berthelsen, E, Råbu, M. Subjective experience of the origin and development of avoidant personality disorder. J Clin Psychol 2020; 76: 2232–2248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sørensen, KD, Råbu, M, Wilberg, T, Berthelsen, E. Struggling to be a person: Lived experience of avoidant personality disorder. J Clin Psychol 2019; 75: 664–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eikenæs, I, Pedersen, G, Wilberg, T. Attachment styles in patients with avoidant personality disorder compared with social phobia. Psychol Psychother Theory, Res Pract 2016; 89: 245–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johansen, MS, Karterud, SW, Normann-Eide, E, et al. The relationship between reflective functioning and affect consciousness in patients with avoidant and borderline personality disorders. Psychoanal Psychol 2018; 35: 382–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johansen, MS, Normann‐Eide, E, Normann‐Eide, T, Wilberg, T. Emotional dysfunction in avoidant compared to borderline personality disorder: A study of affect consciousness. Scand J Psychol 2013; 54: 515–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friborg, O, Martinussen, M, Kaiser, S, Øvergård, KT, Rosenvinge, JH. Comorbidity of personality disorders in anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis of 30 years of research. J Affect Disord 2013; 145: 143–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakash-Eisikovits, ORA, Dutra, L, Westen, D. Relationship between attachment patterns and personality pathology in adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41: 1111–1123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lampe, L, Malhi, GS. Avoidant personality disorder: Current insights. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2018; 11: 55–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekselius, L, Tillfors, M, Furmark, T, Fredrikson, M. Personality disorders in the general population: DSM-IV and ICD-10 defined prevalence as related to sociodemographic profile. Pers Individ Dif 2001; 30: 311–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olssøn, I, Dahl, AA. Avoidant personality problems – Their association with somatic and mental health, lifestyle, and social network. A community-based study. Compr Psychiatry 2012; 53: 813–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swart, S, Wildschut, M, Draijer, N, et al. The course of (comorbid) trauma-related, dissociative and personality disorders: Two year follow up of the Friesland study cohort. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2020; 11: 1750171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haw, C, Hawton, K, Houston, K, Townsend, E. Psychiatric and personality disorders in deliberate self-harm patients. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 178: 48–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinbrecht, A, Schulze, L, Boettcher, J, Renneberg, B. Avoidant personality disorder: A current review. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016; 18: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, RF. Dependent personality disorder. In Widiger, TA (ed). The Oxford handbook of personality disorders. 2012. Oxford University Press. pp. 505–526. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199735013.013.0023.Google Scholar
Disney, KL. Dependent personality disorder: A critical review. Clin Psychol Rev 2013; 33: 1184–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gude, T, Karterud, S, Pedersen, G, Falkum, E. The quality of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, dependent personality disorder prototype. Compr Psychiatry 2006; 47: 456–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loas, G, Cormier, J, Perez-Diaz, F. Dependent personality disorder and physical abuse. Psychiatry Res 2011; 185: 167–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, SW, Hilsenroth, MJ, Bornstein, RF. Convergent validity of the SWAP-200 dependency scales. J Nerv Ment Dis 2009; 197: 613–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, RF. The Dependent Personality. 1993. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bornstein, RF. Illuminating a neglected clinical issue: Societal costs of interpersonal dependency and dependent personality disorder. J Clin Psychol 2012; 68: 766–781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, RF, Porcerelli, JH, Huprich, SK, Markova, T. Construct validity of the Relationship Profile Test: Correlates of overdependence, detachment, and healthy dependency in low income urban women seeking medical services. J Pers Assess 2009; 91: 537–544.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leising, D, Sporberg, D, Rehbein, D. Characteristic interpersonal behavior in dependent and avoidant personality disorder can be observed within very short interaction sequences. J Pers Disord 2006; 20: 319–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loas, G, Atger, F, Perdereau, F, et al. Comorbidity of dependent personality disorder and separation anxiety disorder in addictive disorders and in healthy subjects. Psychopathology 2002; 35: 249–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svartberg, M, Stiles, TC, Seltzer, MH. Randomized, controlled trial of the effectiveness of short-term dynamic psychotherapy and cognitive therapy for cluster C personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 810–817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maccaferri, GE, Dunker-Scheuner, D, De Roten, Y, et al. Psychotherapy of dependent personality disorder: The relationship of patient–therapist interactions to outcome. Psychiatry (New York) 2020; 83: 179–194.Google ScholarPubMed
Freud, S. Character and anal erotism. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume IX (1906–1908): Jensen’s ‘Gradiva’ and Other Works. 1959. pp. 167–176.Google Scholar
Pitman, RK. Pierre Janet on obsessive-compulsive disorder (1903): Review and commentary. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 226–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, E. Anal Erotic Character traits. J Abnorm Psychol 1918; 13: 261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diedrich, A, Voderholzer, U. Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder: A current review. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2015; 17: 2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liggett, J, Sellbom, M. Examining the DSM-5 alternative model of personality disorders operationalization of obsessive-compulsive personality disorder in a mental health sample. Personal Disord Theory, Res Treat 2018; 9: 397–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gecaite-Stonciene, J, Lochner, C, Marincowitz, C, Fineberg, NA, Stein, DJ. Obsessive-compulsive (anankastic) personality disorder in the ICD-11: A scoping review. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12: 646030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Reus, RJM, Emmelkamp, PMG. Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder: A review of current empirical findings. Personal Ment Health 2012; 6: 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liggett, J, Sellbom, M, Bach, B. Continuity between DSM-5 Section II and Section III personality traits for obsessive–compulsive personality disorder. Clin Psychol Psychother 2018; 25: 144–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hummelen, B, Wilberg, T, Pedersen, G, Karterud, S. The quality of the DSM-IV obsessive-compulsive personality disorder construct as a prototype category. J Nerv Ment Dis 2008; 196: 446–455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiltgen, A, Adler, H, Smith, R, et al. Attachment insecurity and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder among inpatients with serious mental illness. J Affect Disord 2015; 174: 411–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steenkamp, MM, Suvak, MK, Dickstein, BD, Shea, MT, Litz, BT. Emotional functioning in obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Comparison to borderline personality disorder and healthy controls. J Pers Disord 2015; 29: 794–808.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halmi, KA. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder and eating disorders. Eat Disord 2005; 13: 85–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordon, OM, Salkovskis, PM, Oldfield, VB, Carter, N. The association between obsessive compulsive disorder and obsessive compulsive personality disorder: Prevalence and clinical presentation. Br J Clin Psychol 2013; 52: 300–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coles, ME, Pinto, A, Mancebo, MC, Rasmussen, SA, Eisen, JL. OCD with comorbid OCPD: A subtype of OCD? J Psychiatr Res 2008; 42: 289–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wetzelaer, P, Lokkerbol, J, Arntz, A, van Asselt, A, Evers, S. Cost-effectiveness of psychotherapy for personality disorders. A systematic review on economic evaluation studies. Tijdschr Psychiatr 2016; 58: 717–727.Google ScholarPubMed
Linehan, MM. Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. 1993. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Caligor, E, Clarkin, JF, Yeomans, FE. Transference-focused psychotherapy for borderline and narcissistic personality disorders. In Kealy, D, Ogrodniczuk, JS (Eds.), Contemporary Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. 2019. Elsevier, pp. 149–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateman, A, Fonagy, P. Mentalization based treatment for borderline personality disorder. World Psychiatry 2010; 9: 11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sempértegui, GA, Karreman, A, Arntz, A, Bekker, MHJ. Schema therapy for borderline personality disorder: A comprehensive review of its empirical foundations, effectiveness and implementation possibilities. Clin Psychol Rev 2013; 33: 426–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Storebø, OJ, Stoffers-Winterling, JM, Völlm, BA, et al. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 5: CD012955.Google ScholarPubMed
Arntz, A, Mensink, K, Cox, WR et al. Dropout from psychological treatment for borderline personality disorder: A multilevel survival meta-analysis. Psychol Med 2023; 53: 668–686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbon, S, Khalifa, NR, Cheung, NHY, Völlm, BA, McCarthy, L. Psychological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 9: CD007668.Google ScholarPubMed
DeBattista, C, Glick, ID. Pharmacotherapy of personality disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry 1995; 8: 102–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoffers-Winterling, J, Völlm, B, Lieb, K. Is Pharmacotherapy Useful for Treating Personality Disorders? 2021. Taylor & Francis.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoffers-Winterling, J, Storebø, OJ, Ribeiro, JP et al. Pharmacological interventions for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2022; 16: CD005653.Google Scholar
Links, PS, Boursiquot, P, Links, M. Recent Developments in the Pharmacologic Management of Personality Disorders. In Lejuez, CW, Gratz, KL (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Personality Disorders. 2020. Cambridge University Press, pp. 504–513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×