Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T14:37:22.524Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Part II - The United States Context

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 July 2019

Edited by
Thomas Ricento
Thomas Ricento
Affiliation:
University of Calgary
Get access

Summary

This chapter argues that disciplining of bilingual education as a scholarly field served to divorce discussions of bilingual education from broader political and economic struggles in favor of the seemingly objective pursuit of the benefits of bilingual education. This disciplining of bilingual education was part of a larger discursive shift that reframed discussions of racial inequality from a focus on unequal access and the need for structural change to a focus on the deficiencies of racialized communities and the need for modifying these deficiencies. The chapter ends with a call for bilingual education scholars to situate issues of language inequality within the broader white supremacist and capitalist relations of power. This will offer bilingual education scholars tools for rejecting deficit perspectives of language-minoritized children and pointing to the broader racial stratification that makes these deficit perspectives possible to begin with.

Keywords

bilingual educationBilingual Education Actcritical race theoryracial formationwhiteness as propertycensuseslanguage ideologieslanguage policylanguage planninglanguage and nationalismmother tongueAmericanizationbilingual educationdual-language educationEnglish-onlyimmigrantlanguage minoritylanguage policyracismracial politicsdual language bilingual educationNew York CityHebrewhigh-stakes testingESLlanguage restrictionismEnglish dominanceHawaiianAlgonquian languagesIndigenous American languagessettler colonialismraciolinguistic inequalityIndigenous self-determinationNative American language policylanguage reclamationnarrative analysislanguage policypositioningachievement gapmultilingualismbilingual educationMinnesota
Type
Chapter
Information
Language Politics and Policies
Perspectives from Canada and the United States
 , pp. 95 - 210
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Aggarwal, U. (2016). The ideological architecture of whiteness as property in educational policy. Educational Policy, 30(1), 128–52.Google Scholar
Aguirre, F., Bowman, K., Mendez, G., Mendez, S., Robbie, S. & Strum, P. (2015). Mendez vs. Westminster: A living history. Michigan State Law Review, 2014(401), 401–27.Google Scholar
Appleby, R. & Pennycook, A. (2017). Swimming with sharks, ecological feminism and posthuman language politics. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 14(2/3), 239–61.Google Scholar
Bale, J. (2011). Tongue-tied: Imperialism and second language education in the United States. Critical Education, 2(8). Retrieved from https://ices.library.ubc.ca/index.php/criticaled/article/view/182322/182390 [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
Bell, D. (1995). Who’s afraid of critical race theory? University of Illinois Law Review, 1995, 893–910.Google Scholar
Bhandaru, D. (2013). Is white normativity racist? Michel Foucault and post-Civil Rights racism. Polity, 45(2), 223–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bilingual Education: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on Bilingual Education of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Senate, 90th Congress. Washington, DC, May 18, 19, 26, 29, and 31 (1967).Google Scholar
Briggs, L. (2002). Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science and US Imperialism in Puerto Rico. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).Google Scholar
Cervantes-Soon, C. (2014). A critical look at dual language immersion in the new Latin@ diaspora. Bilingual Research Journal, 37(1), 65–82.Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of the bilingual child. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Flores, N. (2016). A tale of two visions: Hegemonic whiteness and bilingual education. Educational Policy, 30(1), 13–38.Google Scholar
Flores, N. (2017). Bilingual education. In García, O., Flores, N. & Spotti, M. (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Language and Society. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 525–44.Google Scholar
Flores, N., Kleyn, T. & Menken, K. (2015). Looking holistically in a climate of partiality: Identities of students labeled long-term English language learners. Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 14(2), 113–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores, N. & Rosa, J. (2015). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review, 85(2), 149–71.Google Scholar
Grinberg, J. & Saavedra, E. (2000). The constitution of bilingual/ESL education as a disciplinary practice. Review of Educational Research, 70(4), 419–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, C. (1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Review, 106(8), 1710–91.Google Scholar
Heath, S. (1984). Linguistics and education. Annual Review of Anthropology, 13, 251–74.Google Scholar
Hurd, C. (2008). Cinco de mayo, normative whiteness, and the marginalization of Mexican-descent students. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 39(3), 293–313.Google Scholar
Kubota, R. (2016). The multi/plural turn, postcolonial theory and neoliberal multiculturalism: Complicities and implications for applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics, 37(4), 474–94.Google Scholar
Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education? International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), 7–24.Google Scholar
Matias, C., Viesca, K., Garrison-Wade, D., Tandon, M. & Galindo, R. (2014). “What is critical whiteness doing in OUR nice field like critical race theory?” Applying CRT and CWS to understand the white imagination of white teacher candidates. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(3), 289–304.Google Scholar
Melamed, J. (2011). Represent and Destroy: Rationalizing Violence in the New Racial Capitalism. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Mendez v. Westminster, 161 F.2d 774 (9th Cir. 1947).Google Scholar
Morales, P. Z. & Rao, A. B. (2015). How ideology and cultural capital shape the distribution of Illinois’ bilingual education programs. Online commentary. Teachers College Record. Date Published: September, 28, 2015. ID Number: 18139.Google Scholar
Nieto, S. (2000). Puerto Rican students in U.S. schools: A brief history. In Nieto, S. (ed.), Puerto Rican Students in U.S. Schools. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 5–38.Google Scholar
Olsen, L. (2010). Reparable Harm: Fulfilling the Unkept Promise of Educational Opportunity for California’s Long Term English Learners. Long Beach: Californians Together.Google Scholar
Omi, M. & Winant, H. (1994). Racial Formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Palmer, D. (2010). Race, power and equity in a multiethnic urban elementary school with a dual-language “strand” program. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 41(2), 94–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrovic, J. (2005). The conservative restoration and neoliberal defense of bilingual education. Language Policy, 4, 395–416.Google Scholar
Ricento, T. (1998). National language policy. In Ricento, T. and Burnaby, B. (eds.), Language and Politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and Realities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ricento, T. (2005). Problems with the “language as resource” discourse in the promotion pf heritage languages in the U.S.A. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9(3), 348–68.Google Scholar
Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2), 15–34.Google Scholar
San Miguel, G. (2004). Contested Policy: The Rise and Fall of Federal Bilingual Education in the United States, 1960–2001. Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press.Google Scholar
Sinclair, J. (2018). ‘Starving and suffocating’: Evaluation policies and practices during the first10 years of the U.S. Bilingual Education Act. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21, 710–728.Google Scholar
Sleeter, C. (1995). An analysis of the critiques of multicultural education. In Banks, J. & McGee Banks, C. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education. New York, NY: Macmillan, pp. 81–94.Google Scholar
Sung, K. (2017): “Accentuate the positive; Eliminate the negative”: Hegemonic interest convergence, racialization of Latino poverty and the 1968 Bilingual Education Act. Peabody Journal of Education, 92, 302–321.Google Scholar
Trujillo, A. (2014). Chicano Empowerment and Bilingual Education: Movimiento Politics in Crystal City, Texas. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Valdés, G. (1997). Dual language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students. Harvard Educational Review, 67(3), 391–429.Google Scholar
Veladez, C., MacSwan, J. & Martínez, C. (2002). Toward a new view of low-achieving bilinguals: A study of linguistic competence in designated “semilinguals.” Bilingual Review, 25(3), 238–48.Google Scholar
Winant, H. (2004). The New Politics of Race: Globalism, Difference, Justice. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

References

Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (Revised). London: Verso.Google Scholar
Arel, D. (2002). Language categories in censuses: backward- or forward-looking? In Kertzer, D. I. & Arel, D. (eds.), Census and Identity: The Politics of Race, Ethnicity, and Language in National Censuses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 92–120.Google Scholar
Bilingual Education Act, Pub. L. No. (93-380), 88 Stat. 503 (1974).Google Scholar
Canadian Census Office. (1901). Fourth Census of Canada 1901: Instructions to Chief Officers, Enumerators and Commissioners. Ottawa: Canadian Census Office. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.828375/publication.html [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Canadian Census Office. (1902). Fourth Census of Canada, 1901 (Vol. 1). Ottawa: S. E. Dawson. Retrieved from http://archive.org/details/fourthcensusofca01canauoft [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Canadian Census Office. (1911). Fifth Census of Canada 1911: Instructions to Officers, Enumerators and Commissioners. Ottawa: Canadian Census Office. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.828431/publication.html [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (UK), 1982, c 11.Google Scholar
Cardinal, L. (2004). The limits of bilingualism in Canada. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 10(1), 79–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/13537110490450782Google Scholar
Cardinal, L. (2005). The ideological limits of linguistic diversity in Canada. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 26(6), 481–95.Google Scholar
Castonguay, C. (1999). French is on the ropes. Why won’t Ottawa admit it? Policy Options, 20(8), 39–50.Google Scholar
Chase, S. (2010, August 11). Tories make language concession on census. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/tories-make-language-concession-on-census/article1376857/ [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Civil Rights Act of 1964, Pub.L. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964).Google Scholar
Corbeil, J.-P. (2012). L’information démolinguistique et le recensement Canadien (1969–2009): reflet d’une dualité linguistique en mutation. In Landry, R. & Jedwab, J. (eds.), Life After Forty: Official Languages Policy in Canada/Après quarante ans: les politiques de langue officielle au Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, pp. 29–51.Google Scholar
Court Interpreters Act. (1978). Public Law 95–539 – OCT. 28, 1978 92 STAT. 2040.Google Scholar
deVries, J. (1985). Some methodological aspects of self‐report questions on language and ethnicity. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 6(5), 347–68.Google Scholar
Dominion Bureau of Statistics. (1921). Sixth Census of Canada 1921: Instructions to Officers, Enumerators and Commissioners. Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.Google Scholar
Duchêne, A. & Humbert, P. N. (2018). Surveying languages: The art of governing speakers by numbers. The International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2018(252), 1–20.Google Scholar
Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 (Pub. L. 93–380, title II, §204, Aug. 21, 1974, 88 Stat. 515).Google Scholar
Executive Order No. 13166. Federal Register Vol. 65, No. 159, page 50121 (2000).Google Scholar
Gauthier, J. G. (2002). Measuring America: The Decennial Censuses from 1790 to 2000. Washington DC: US Census Bureau. Retrieved from www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/pol02-ma.pdf [Last accessed December 12, 2017].Google Scholar
Hacking, I. (2005). Why race still matters. Daedalus, 134(1), 102–16.Google Scholar
Haque, E. (2012). Multiculturalism within a Bilingual Framework: Language, Race, and Belonging in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Kertzer, D. I. & Arel, D. (2002). Censuses, identity formation, and the struggle for political power. In Kertzer, D. I. & Arel, D. (eds.), Census and Identity: The Politics of Race, Ethnicity, and Language in National Censuses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–42.Google Scholar
Kominski, R. (1989). How good is “how well?”: An examination of the census English-speaking ability question. American Statistical Association 1989 Proceedings of the social statistics section, pp. 333–38.Google Scholar
Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974).Google Scholar
Leeman, J. (2004). Racializing language: A history of linguistic ideologies in the US Census. Journal of Language and Politics, 3, 507–34.Google Scholar
Leeman, J. (2018a). It’s all about English: The interplay of monolingual ideologies, language policy and the US Census Bureau’s statistics on multilingualism. The International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2018(252), 21–43.Google Scholar
Leeman, J. (2018b). Questioning the Language Questions: Federal Policy and the Evaluation of the U.S. Census Bureau’s Statistics on Language. Research and Methodology Directorate, Center for Survey Measurement Study Series (Survey Methodology #2018–11). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2018/adrm/rsm2018-11.pdf [Last accessed December 12, 2017].Google Scholar
Mervis, J. (2017, January 3). Scientists fear pending attack on federal statistics collection. Science. Retrieved from www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/01/scientists-fear-pending-attack-federal-statistics-collection [Last accessed July 16, 2017].Google Scholar
Pavlenko, A. (2002). “We have room but for one language here”: Language and national identity at the turn of the 20th century. Multilingua, 21, 163–96.Google Scholar
Prévost, J.-G. & Beaud, J.-P. (2002). Statistical inquiry and the management of linguistic plurality in Canada, Belgium and Switzerland. Journal of Canadian Studies, 36(4), 88–117.Google Scholar
Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. (1967). Report of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism. General introduction, Book 1. Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.699861/publication.html [Last accessed December 12, 2017].Google Scholar
Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2), 15–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. Sr. (1998). The politics of language in Canada and the United States: Explaining the differences. In Ricento, T. & Burnaby, B. (eds.), Language and Politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and Realities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 37–70.Google Scholar
Sebba, M. (2017). “English a foreign tongue”: The 2011 Census in England and the misunderstanding of multilingualism. Journal of Language and Politics, 16(2), 264–84.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (2002). 2001 Census Handbook. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. (2016). 2016 Census questions and reasons why the questions are asked (personal interview version). Retrieved from www.census.gc.ca/ccr16f/ccr16f_001-eng.html [Last accessed August 15, 2017].Google Scholar
Urla, J. (1993). Contesting modernities: Language standardization and the production of an ancient/modern Basque culture. Critique of Anthropology, 13(2), 101–18.Google Scholar
US Bureau of the Census. (1913). 13th Census of the United States (1910) (Vol. 1 Population). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
US Bureau of the Census. (1963). 1960 Census of the Population. Vol. 1. Characteristics of the Population. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce.Google Scholar
Wang, H. L. (2018, January 10). Adding citizenship question risks “bad count” for 2020 census, experts warn. NPR. Retrieved from www.npr.org/2018/01/10/575145554/adding-citizenship-question-risks-bad-count-for-2020-census-experts-warn [Last accessed January 12, 2018].Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2000). Continuity and change in the function of language ideologies in the United States. In Ricento, T. (ed.), Ideology, Politics and Language Policies: Focus on English. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 67–85.Google Scholar

References

Adams, D. W. (1992). Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928. Lawrence, KA: University Press of Kansas.Google Scholar
Arias, M. B. & Wiley, T. G. (2015). Forty years after Lau: The continuing assault on educational human rights in the United States with implications for linguistic minorities. Languages Problems and Language Planning, 39(3), 227–44.Google Scholar
Bale, J. (2011a). Language and imperialism: The case of Title VI and Arabic, 1958–1991. Journal for Critical Educational Policies, 9, 376–409.Google Scholar
Bale, J. (2011b). The campaign for Spanish language education in the “colossus of the north,” 1914–45. Language Policy, 10, 137–57.Google Scholar
Bale, J. (2014). Heritage language education and the “National Interest.” Review of Research in Education, 38, 166–88.Google Scholar
Ballotpedia, (2016, June 2a). California Proposition 63, English Is the Official Language Amendment (1986). Middleton, WI. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_63,_English_is_the_Official_Language_Amendment_(1986) [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Ballotpedia, (2016, June 2b). California Proposition 209: California Affirmative Action Proposition. Middleton, WI. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/California_Affirmative_Action,_Proposition_209_(1996) [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Ballotpedia, (2016, August 16). Proposition 58: California Multicultural Education Act. Middleton, WI. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/wiki/index.php?title=California_Multilingual_Education_Act,_Proposition_58_(2016)&redirect=no [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Ballotpedia, (2016, September 5). California Proposition 227: English in Public Schools. Middleton, WI. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_227,_the_%22English_in_Public_Schools%22_Initiative_(1998) [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Ballotpedia, (2017, April 7). California Proposition: 187: Illegal Aliens Ineligible for Public Benefits. Author. Middleton, WI. Retrieved from https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_187,_Illegal_Aliens_Ineligible_for_Public_Benefits_(1994) [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Blanton, C. (2007). The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, 1836–1981. College Station, TX: A&M University Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, A. (2014). Undocumented: How Immigration Became Illegal. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Crawford, J. (1992). Hold Your Tongue: Bilingualism and the Politics of English Only. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Crawford, J. (2000). At War With Diversity: US Language Policy in an Age of Anxiety. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Donahue, T. S. (1995). American language policy and compensatory opinion. In Tollefson, J. (ed.), Power and Inequaltiy in Languge Education. Cambridge: Cambridge Universty Press, pp. 112–41.Google Scholar
Epstein, N. (1977). Language, Ethnicity, and the Schools: Policy Alternatives for Bilingual-Bicultural Education. Washington, DC: George Washington University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: ED 151434).Google Scholar
Fairclough, N. (2014). Language and Power (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Faltis, C. & Arias, M. B. (2012). Implementing Educational Language Policy in Arizona: Legal, Historical and Current Practices in SEI. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Gándara, P. & Hopkins, M. (eds.). (2010). Forbidden Language: English Learners and Restrictive Language Policies. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Gramsci, A. (1989). Selections from the Prison Notebooks. New York: International Publishers Co.Google Scholar
Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingual Education. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Holly, P. (2017, May 12). One Republican’s “shameful” plan to save money: Turn 82,000 non-English-speaking kids over to ICE. Washington Post. Retrieved from www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2017/05/11/one-gop-lawmakers-plan-to-save-money-turning-non-english-speaking-kids-over-to-ice/ [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Katznelson, N.; & Bernstein, K. A. (2017, August). Rebranding bilingualism: The shifting discourses of language education policy in California’s 2016 election. Linguistics and Education, 40, 11–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LAO. (2016, November 8a) Proposition 58: English Language Education. Sacramento, CA: Legislative Analyst’s Office (LAO). Retrieved from www.lao.ca.gov/BallotAnalysis/Proposition?number=58&year=2016 [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
LAO. (2016, November 8b). Proposition 227: English Language in Public Schools. Sacramento, CA: Legislative Analyst’s Office (LAO). Retrieved from www.lao.ca.gov/ballot/1998/227_06_1998.htm [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Lehrer, D. A., & Hicks, J. (2010, July 12). UC proves Prop. 209’s point. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jul/12/opinion/la-oe-lehrer-affirmativeaction-20100712 [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Leibowitz, A. H. (1969). English literacy: Legal sanction for discrimination. Notre Dame Lawyer, 25(1), 7–66.Google Scholar
Leibowitz, A. H. (1971). Educational policy and political acceptance: The imposition of English as the language of instruction in American schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: ED 047 321).Google Scholar
Leibowitz, A. H. (1974). Language as a means of social control: The United States experience. Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the World Congress of Sociology. Toronto, ON. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service: ED 093 163).Google Scholar
Lillie, K. E., Markos, A., Arias, M. B. & Wiley, T. G. (2012). Separate and not equal: The implementation of SEI in Arizona classrooms. Teachers College Record, 114(9), 6–7.Google Scholar
Lillie, K. E., Markos, A., Estrella, A., Nguyen, T., Peer, K., Pérez, K., Trifiro, A., Arias, M. B. & Wiley, T. G. (2010, July). Policy in Practice: The Implementation of Structured English Immersion in Arizona. Los Angeles, CA: Civil Rights Project: University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
McField, G. P. (ed.). (2014). The Miseducation of English Learners: A Tale of Three States and Lessons to Be Learned. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.Google Scholar
Migration News. (1994, December). Prop. 187 approved. Retrieved from https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=492 [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Miles, R. & Brown, M. (2003). Racism (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Moore, S. K. (ed.). (2014). Language Policy Processes and Consequences: Arizona Case Studies. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Myrdal, G. (1944). An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York, NY: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Ngai, M. M. (2004). Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton, University Press.Google Scholar
Olivas, M. A. (2012). No Undocumented Child Left Behind: Plyler v. Doe and the Education of undocumented School Children. New York, NY: NYU Press.Google Scholar
Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S. 202 (1982).Google Scholar
Powers, J. M. (2014). From s.egregation to school finance. The legal context for language rights in the United States. In Borman, K. M., Wiley, T. G., Garcia, D. R., Danzig, A. B. & Stigler, M. L. (eds.), Review of Educational Research in Education: Language Policy, Politics, and Diversity in Education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, pp. 81–105.Google Scholar
Ramírez, J. D., Wiley, T. G., de Klerk, G., Lee, E., & Wright, W. (eds.). (2005). Ebonics in the Urban Education Debate (2nd ed.). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, LTD.Google Scholar
Ricento, T. (2003). The discursive construction of Americanism. Discourse & Society, 14(5), 611–37.Google Scholar
Ricento, T. (2005). Problems with the “language as resource” discourse in the promotion of heritage languages in the USA. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9(3), 348–68.Google Scholar
San Miguel, G. (2004). The Rise and Fall of Federal Bilingual Education in the United States, 1960–2001. Denton, TX: North Texas State University Press.Google Scholar
SPLC (2017). Hate Map. Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC). Retrieved from www.splcenter.org/hate-map [Last accessed March 9, 2019].Google Scholar
Tamura, E. (1994). Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawaii. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Tatalovich, R. (1995). Nativism Reborn?: The Official English Language Movement and the American States. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.Google Scholar
Tollefson, J. (1995). Power and Inequality in Language Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Toth, C. R. (1990). German-English Bilingual Schools in America: The Cincinnati Tradition in Historical Context. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar
Weinberg, M. (1995). A Chance to Learn: A History of Race and Education in the United States (2nd ed.). Long Beach, CA: California State University Press.Google Scholar
Weiss, B. (1982). American Education and the European Immigrant: 1840–1940. Urbana-Champaign, IL. University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (1998). The imposition of World War I–era English-only policies and the fate of German in North America. In Ricento, T. & Burnaby, B. (eds.), Language and Politics in the United States and Canada. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 211–41.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2000). Proposition 227: California’s new restrictions on the educational choices of language minority parents and children. Multilingual Educator, 1(1), 34–35.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2004). Language policy and English-only. In Finegan, E. & Rickford, J. R. (eds.), Language in the USA: Perspectives for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 319–38.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2005). Literacy and Language Diversity in the United States (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2007). The foreign language “crisis” in the US: Are heritage and community languages the remedy? Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 4(2–3), 179–205.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2013). Constructing and deconstructing “illegal” children. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 13(3), 167–72.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G. (2015). The Civil Rights Act and the weight of history. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9(4), 3018–312.Google Scholar
Wright, W. E. (2014). Proposition 203 and Arizona’s early school reform efforts: The nullification of accommodations. In Moore, S. K. (ed.), Language Policy Processes and Consequences: Arizona Case Studies. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 45–72.Google Scholar
Wong, T. K. (2017). The Politics of Immigration: Partisanship, Demographic Change, and the American National Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wyman, M. (1993). Round-Trip to America: The Immigrants Return to Europe, 1880–1930. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Yoshikawa, H. (2011). Immigrants Raising Citizens: Undocumented Parents and Their Young Children. NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Yanow, D. (2003). Constructing “Race” and “Ethnicity” in America: Category-Making in Public Policy Administration. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.Google Scholar

References

Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (5th ed.). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Cervantes-Soon, C. (2014). A critical look at dual language immersion in the new Latin@ diaspora. Bilingual Research Journal, 37(1), 64–82.Google Scholar
Corson, D. (1999). Language Policy in Schools: A Resource for Teachers and Administrators. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
de Jong, E. (2011). Foundations for Multilingualism in Education: From Principles to Practice. Philadelphia, PA: Caslon.Google Scholar
Duchêne, A., & Heller, M. (2012). Language in Late Capitalism: Pride and Profit. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ennser-Kananen, J., Fallas Escobar, C. & Bigelow, M. (2017). “It’s Practically a Must”: Neoliberal reasons for foreign language learning. International Journal of Society, Culture & Language, 5(1), 15–28.Google Scholar
García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
García, O. & Fishman, J. (eds.). (1997). The Multilingual Apple: Languages in New York City. Berlin: Mouton.Google Scholar
García, O. & Flores, N. (2013). Multilingualism and common core state standards in the United States. In May, S. (ed.), The Multilingual Turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL, and Bilingual Education. New York: Routledge, pp. 147–66.Google Scholar
García, O., Menken, K., Velasco, P. & Vogel, S. (2018). Dual language bilingual education in New York City: A potential unfulfilled?. In Arias, B., & Fee, M. (eds.), Profiles of Dual Language Education in the 21st Century: CAL Series on Language Education. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters, pp. 38–55.Google Scholar
Hakuta, K. & Linquanti, R. (2016). Statement from the Working Group on ELL Policy re: Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015. Stanford, CA: Working Group on ELL Policy. Retrieved from http://ellpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/ESSAComments.pdf [Last accessed February 18, 2018].Google Scholar
Harris, E. (2015, October 8). Dual-language programs are on the rise, even for native English speakers. New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2015/10/09/nyregion/dual-language-programs-are-on-the-rise-even-for-native-english-speakers.html [Last accessed February 18, 2018].Google Scholar
Hunt, V. (2011). Learning from success stories: Leadership structures that support dual language programs over time in New York City. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14(2), 187–206.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. C. (2013). Language Policy. New York, US: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Kaplan, R. & Baldauf, R. (1997). Language Planning: From Practice to Theory. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Katznelson, N. & Bernstein, K. (2017). Rebranding bilingualism: The shifting discourses of language education policy in California’s 2016 election. Linguistics and Education, 40, 11–26.Google Scholar
LeCompte, M. & Preissle, J. (1993). Ethnography and Qualitative Design in Educational Research (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic.Google Scholar
Martínez, R., Hikida, M. & Durán, L. (2015). Unpacking ideologies of linguistic purism: How dual language teachers make sense of everyday translanguaging. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9(1), 26–42.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L. (2003). Revitalising Indigenous languages in homogenising times. Comparative Education, 39(2), 147–63.Google Scholar
Menken, K. (2008). English Learners Left Behind: Standardized Testing as Language Policy. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Menken, K. (2010). No Child Left Behind and English language learners: The challenges and consequences of high-stakes testing. Theory Into Practice, 49(2), 121–28.Google Scholar
Menken, K. (2011). From policy to practice in the multilingual apple: Bilingual education in New York City. Editorial Introduction. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14(2), 123–33.Google Scholar
Menken, K. & Avni, S. (2017). Challenging linguistic purism in dual language bilingual education: A case study of Hebrew in a New York City public middle school. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 185–202.Google Scholar
Menken, K. & García, O. (eds.). (2010). Negotiating Language Policies in Schools: Educators as Policymakers. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Menken, K. & García, O. (2017). Language policy in classrooms and schools. In McCarty, T. & May, S. (eds.), Language Policy and Political Issues in Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education (3rd ed.). New York: Springer, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar
Menken, K. & Solorza, C. (2013). Where have all the bilingual programs gone?: Why prepared school leaders are essential for bilingual education. Journal of Multilingual Education Research, 4(3): 9–39.Google Scholar
Menken, K. & Solorza, C. (2014). No child left bilingual: Accountability and the elimination of bilingual education programs in New York City schools. Educational Policy, 28(1), 96–125.Google Scholar
Miles, M., Huberman, A. & Saldaña, J. (2013). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
New York City Department of Education. (2014). Memorandum of understanding between the New York City Department of Education and the New York State Education Department. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/1356880/doe-mou-final.pdf [Last accessed February 18, 2018].Google Scholar
New York City Department of Education. (2015). Checklist: Primary Characteristics of Model Dual Language Programs. New York, NY: Author.Google Scholar
New York City Department of Education. (2017). Chancellor Fariña announces citywide bilingual expansion, bringing 68 new programs to schools this fall. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://schools.nyc.gov/Offices/mediarelations/NewsandSpeeches/2016-2017/BilingualExpansion.htm [Last accessed March 1, 2017].Google Scholar
New York City Department of Education, Division of English Language Learners and Student Support. (2016). English language learner demographics report: 2014–15 school year. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/0183D51C-377B-4ED7-BCBE-607AE4669D54/0/201415ELLDemographicReport.pdf [Last accessed May 22, 2017].Google Scholar
New York State Education Department. (2011). New York City Department of Education’s Part 154 Corrective Action Plan for English language learners. Albany, NY: Author. Retrieved from www.p12.nysed.gov/docs/nycdoe-cap.html [Last accessed February 18, 2018].Google Scholar
New York State Education Department. (2017). Seal of Biliteracy. Chapter 271 of the Laws of 2012 (Section 815 of Education Law). Retrieved from http://sealofbiliteracy.org/new-york [Last accessed February 18, 2018].Google Scholar
New York State Education Department, Office of Bilingual Education and English as a New Language. (2014). Subpart 154–2 services for English language learners for programs operated in the 2015–2016 school year and thereafter. Retrieved from www.nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/programs/bilingual-ed/terms-154-2-effective-2015-16-and-after.pdf [Last accessed May 22, 2017].Google Scholar
New York State Education Department, Office of Bilingual Education and Foreign Language Studies. (2014). Blueprint for English Language Learners (ELLs) Success. Albany, NY: Author. Retrieved from www.nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/blueprint-for-ell-success.pdf [Last accessed February 18, 2018].Google Scholar
Palmer, D., Martínez, R., Mateus, S. & Henderson, K. (2014). Reframing the debate on language separation: Toward a vision for translanguaging pedagogies in the dual language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 98(3), 757–72.Google Scholar
Petrovic, J. E. (2005). The conservative restoration and neoliberal defenses of bilingual education. Language Policy, 4(4), 395–416.Google Scholar
Rhoades, G. & Slaughter, S. (2004). Academic capitalism in the new economy: Challenges and choices. American Academic, 1(1), 37–59.Google Scholar
Ricento, T. & Hornberger, N. (1996). Unpeeling the onion: Language planning and policy and the ELT professional. TESOL Quarterly, 30(3), 401–28.Google Scholar
Rolstad, K., Mahoney, K. & Glass, G. (2005). The big picture: A meta-analysis of program effectiveness research on English language learners. Educational Policy, 19(4), 572–94.Google Scholar
Solano-Flores, G. & Trumbull, E. (2008). In what language should English language learners be tested? In Kopriva, R. J. (ed.), Improving Testing for English Language Learners. New York: Routledge, pp. 169–200.Google Scholar
Solórzano, R. (2008). High stakes testing: Issues, implications, and remedies for English language learners. Review of Educational Research, 78(2), 260–329.Google Scholar
Steele, J., Slater, R., Zamarro, G., Miller, T., Li, J., Burkhauser, S. & Bacon, M. (2017). Effects of dual-language immersion programs on student achievement: Evidence from lottery data. American Educational Research Journal, 54(1S), 282S–306S.Google Scholar
Tollefson, J. (1991). Planning Language, Planning Inequality: Language Policy in the Community. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Tollefson, J. (2013). Language Policies in Education: Critical Issues (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Umansky, I. & Reardon, S. (2014). Reclassification patterns among Latino English learner students in bilingual, dual immersion, and English immersion classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 51, 879–912.Google Scholar
Valdez, V., Delavan, G. & Freire, J. A. (2016). The marketing of dual language education policy in Utah print media. Educational Policy, 30(6), 849–83.Google Scholar
Valdez, V., Freire, J. & Delavan, M. (2016). The gentrification of dual language education. Urban Review, 48(4), 601–27.Google Scholar
Varghese, M. & Park, C. (2010). Going global: Can dual-language programs save bilingual education? Journal of Latinos and Education, 9(1), 72–80.Google Scholar
Velasco, P., & Johnson, H. (2014). New York State bilingual common core initiative: Creating scaffolds for the successful education of language learners. In Minaya-Rowe, L. (ed.), Effective Educational Programs, Practices, and Policies for English Learners. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing (IAP), pp. 29–62.Google Scholar
Wiley, T. & Wright, W. (2004). Against the undertow: Language-minority education policy and politics in the “age of accountability.” Educational Policy, 18(1), 142–68.Google Scholar

References

‘Aha Pūnana Leo. (n.d.). History. Retrieved from www.ahapunanaleo.org/index.php?/about/history/ [Last accessed March 13, 2019].Google Scholar
Alfred, T. (2014). The Akwesasne cultural restoration program: A Mohawk approach to land-based education. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society, 3(3), 134–44.Google Scholar
Appadurai, A. (2001). Grassroots globalization and the research imagination. In Appadurai, A. (ed.), Globalization. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 1–21.Google Scholar
Baldwin, D. (2003). Miami language reclamation: From ground zero. Lecture presented by the Center for Writing and the Interdisciplinary Minor in Literacy and Rhetorical Studies, Speaker Series 24. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Retrieved from myaamiacenter.org/MCResources/Baldwin_biblio/Baldwin_ground_zero.pdf [Last accessed March 13, 2019].Google Scholar
Baldwin, D. (2014). Oowaaha myaamiaataweenki: Miami is spoken here. In Wiley, T. G., Peyton, J. K., Christian, D., Moore, S. C. K., & Liu, N. (eds.), Handbook of Heritage, Community, and Native American Languages in the United States: Research Policy, and Educational Practice. New York and Washington, DC: Routledge and Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 212–18.Google Scholar
Baldwin, D., Baldwin, K., Baldwin, J. & Baldwin, J. (2013). Myaamiaataweenki oowaaha: Miami spoken here. In Hinton, L. (ed.), Bringing Our Languages Home: Language Revitalization for Families. Berkeley, CA: Heyday, pp. 3–18.Google Scholar
Baldwin, D. & Olds, J. (2007). Miami Indian language and cultural research at Miami University. In Cobb, D. M. & Fowler, L. (eds.), Beyond Red Power: American Indian Politics and Activism since 1900. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research, pp. 280–90.Google Scholar
Bell, D. (2004). Silent Covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the Unfulfilled Hopes for Racial Reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Bennett, B. A., Pearson, K. & Plummer, A. (1967). Community development training on the Navajo reservation. In Roessel, R. A. (ed.), Indian Communities in Action. Tempe: Arizona State University, pp. 180–83.Google Scholar
Costa, D. (1994). The Miami-Illinois Language. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
De Korne, H. & Leonard, W. Y. (2017). Reclaiming languages: Contesting and decolonizing “language endangerment” from the ground up. Language Documentation and Description, 14, 5–14.Google Scholar
Emerson, L. (2017). Diné sovereign action: Rejecting colonial sovereignty and invoking Diné peacemaking. In Lee, L. L. (ed.), Navajo Sovereignty: Understandings and Visions of the Diné People. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, pp. 160–78.Google Scholar
Fixico, D. (2007). Witness to change: Fifty years of Indian activism and tribal politics. In Cobb, D. M. & Fowler, L. (eds.), Beyond Red Power: American Indian Politics and Activism since 1900. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research, pp. 2–15.Google Scholar
Goodyear-Ka‘ōpua, N. (2013). The Seeds We Planted: Portraits of a Native Hawaiian Charter School. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Goodyear-Ka‘ōpua, N. (2014). Introduction. In Goodyear-Ka‘ōpua, N., Hussey, I. & Kahunawaika‘ala Wright, E. (eds.), A Nation Rising: Hawaiian Movements for Life, Land, and Sovereignty. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, pp. 1–33.Google Scholar
Grenoble, L. A., & Whaley, L. J. (2006). Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development. (2005). Honoring Nations: Akwesasne Freedom School. Cambridge, MA: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Hermes, M., Bang, M. & Marin, A. (2012). Designing Indigenous language revitalization. Harvard Educational Review, 82(3), 381–402.Google Scholar
Hermes, M. & Kawai‘ae‘a, K. (2014). Revitalizing Indigenous languages through Indigenous immersion education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 2(2), 303–22.Google Scholar
Hinton, L. (2001). Sleeping languages: Can they be awakened? In Hinton, L. & Hale, K. (eds.), The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 413–17.Google Scholar
Hinton, L. (ed.) (2013). Bringing Our Languages Home: Language Revitalization for Families. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books.Google Scholar
Hinton, L., Huss, L. & Roche, G. (eds.) (2018). The Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Holm, A. & Holm, W. (1990). Rock Point, a Navajo way to go to school: A valediction. Annals of the American Association of Political and Social Science, 508, 170–84.Google Scholar
Holm, A. & Holm, W. (1995). Navajo language education: Retrospect and prospects. Bilingual Research Journal, 19(1), 141–67.Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. H. (ed.) (1996). Indigenous Literacies in the Americas: Language Planning from the Bottom Up. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. H. (2006). Nichols to NCLB: Local and global perspectives on US language education policy. In García, O., Skutnabb-Kangas, T. & Torres-Guzmán, M. E. (eds.), Imagining Multilingual Schools: Languages in Education and Glocalization. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, pp. 223–37.Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. H. & McCarty, T. L. (eds.) (2012). Globalization from the bottom up: Indigenous language planning and policy across time, space, and place. Special Issue, International Multilingual Research Journal, 6(1).Google Scholar
Iokepa-Guerrero, N. (2008). Raising a child in the Pūnana Leo: Everyone (men and women) play an important role. Exchange: The Early Childhood Leaders’ Magazine, May–June, 30–32.Google Scholar
Iokepa-Guerrero, N. (2016). Revitalization programs and impacts in the USA and Canada. In Coronel-Molina, S. M. & McCarty, T. L. (eds.), Indigenous Language Revitalization in the Americas. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 227–46.Google Scholar
Kaomea, J. (2003). Dilemmas of an Indigenous academic: A Native Hawaiian story. In Mutua, K. & Swadener, B. B. (eds.), Decolonizing Research in Cross-Cultural Contexts: Critical Personal Narratives. Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 27–43.Google Scholar
Kaomea, J. (2005). Indigenous studies in the elementary curriculum: A cautionary Hawaiian example. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 24–42.Google Scholar
Lee, L. L. (ed.) (2017). Navajo Sovereignty: Understandings and Visions of the Diné People. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Lee, T. S. & McCarty, T. L. (2017). Upholding Indigenous education sovereignty through critical culturally sustaining/revitalizing pedagogy. In Paris, D. & Alim, H. S. (eds.), Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies: Teaching and Learning for Justice in a Changing World. New York, NY: Teachers College Press, pp. 61–82.Google Scholar
Leonard, W. Y. (2008). When is an “extinct” language not extinct? Miami, a formerly sleeping language. In King, K. A., Schilling-Estes, N., Fogle, L., Lou, J. J. & Soukup, B. (eds.), Sustaining Linguistic Diversity: Endangered and Minority Languages and Language Varieties. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 23–33.Google Scholar
Leonard, W. Y. (2011). Challenging “extinction” through modern Miami language practices. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 35(2), 135–60.Google Scholar
Leonard, W. Y. (2012). Framing language reclamation programmes for everybody’s empowerment. Gender and Language, 6(2), 339–67.Google Scholar
Leonard, W. Y. (2017). Producing language reclamation by decolonizing “language.” Language Documentation and Description, 14, 15–36.Google Scholar
Leonard, W. Y. & De Korne, H. (eds.) (2017). Reclaiming languages: Contesting and decolonizing “language endangerment” from the ground up. Special Issue Language Documentation and Description, 14.Google Scholar
Linn, M. & Oberly, S. (2016). Local and global dimensions of language revitalization in the USA and Canada. In Coronel-Molina, S. M. & McCarty, T. L. (eds.), Indigenous Language Revitalization in the Americas. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 137–57.Google Scholar
little doe baird, J. (2013). Wampanoag: How did this happen to my language? In Hinton, L. (ed.), Bringing Our Languages Home: Language Revitalization for Families. Berkeley, CA: Heyday, pp. 19–30.Google Scholar
Lomawaima, K. T. & McCarty, T. L. (2006). “To Remain an Indian”: Lessons in Democracy from a Century of Native American Education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
López, L. E. (2008). Top-down and bottom-up: Counterpoised visions of bilingual intercultural education in Latin America. In Hornberger, N. H. (ed.), Can Schools Save Indigenous Languages? Policy and Practice on Four Continents. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 42–65.Google Scholar
López, L. E. (2017). Decolonization and bilingual/intercultural education. In McCarty, T. L. & May, S. (eds.), Language Policy and Political Issues in Education (3rd ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International, pp. 297–313.Google Scholar
Manuelito, K. (2005). The role of education in American Indian self-determination: Lessons from the Ramah Navajo Community School. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 73–87.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L. (2002). A Place to Be Navajo – Rough Rock and the Struggle for Self-Determination in Indigenous Schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L. (2013). Language Planning and Policy in Native America: History, Theory, Praxis. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L. (2018a). Concluding commentary: Reimagining education research from Indigenous elsewheres. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 31(3), 231–34.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L. (2018b). Twelfth Annual Brown Lecture in Education Research. So that any child may succeed: Indigenous pathways toward justice and the promise of Brown. Educational Researcher, 47(5), 271–83.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L., Nicholas, S. E., Chew, K. A. B., Diaz, N. G., Leonard, W. Y. & White, L. (2018). Hear our languages, hear our voices: Storywork as theory and praxis in Indigenous-language reclamation. Daedalus, the Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 147(2), 160–72.Google Scholar
McCarty, T. L. & Roessel, C. M. (2015). Tsé Ch’ízhí Diné Bi’ólta’ – Rough Rock, the People’s School: Reflections on a half-century of Navajo community-controlled education (U.S. 1966). In Rodríguez, E. (ed.), Pedagogies and Curriculums to (Re)Imagine Public Education: Transnational Tales of Hope and Resistance. Singapore: Springer Science, pp. 49–63.Google Scholar
Meek, B. (2011). Failing American Indian languages. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 35(2), 43–60.Google Scholar
Metz, A. (2008, June 26). School immerses Mohawk children in traditional language. Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved from: www.orlandosentinel.com/topic/ny-mohawk1102,0,1329752.story [Last accessed June 26, 2008].Google Scholar
Ó hIfearnáin, T. (2015). Sociolinguistic vitality of Max after extreme language shift: Authenticity without traditional native speakers. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 231, 45–62.Google Scholar
Perley, B. C. (2011). Defying Maliseet Language Death: Emergent Vitalities of Language, Culture, and Identity in Eastern Canada. Lincoln: University of Nebaska Press.Google Scholar
Read, J., Spolsky, B. & Neundorf, A. (1975). Socioeconomic implications of bilingual education on the Navajo Reservation. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, March, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Roessel, R. A. (1977). Navajo Education in Action: The Rough Rock Demonstration School. Chinle, AZ: Navajo Curriculum Center, Rough Rock Demonstration School.Google Scholar
Romero-Little, M. E., Ortiz, S. J., McCarty, T. L. & Chen, R. (eds.) (2011). Indigenous Languages across the Generations – Strengthening Families and Communities. Tempe: Arizona State University Center for Indian Education.Google Scholar
Simpson, A. (2014). Mohawk Interruptus (Political Life across the Borders of Settler States). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Stairs, A., Peters, M. & Perkins, E. (1999). Beyond language in Indigenous language immersion schooling, Practicing Anthropology, 20(2), 44–47.Google Scholar
Tilly, C. (2004). Social Movements, 1768–2004. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.Google Scholar
Tuck, E. & Yang, K. W. (2014). R-words: Refusing research. In Paris, D. & Winn, M. T. (eds.), Humanizing Research: Decolonizing Qualitative Inquiry with Youth and Communities. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, pp. 223–47.Google Scholar
United Nations General Assembly. (2007). United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Paris: United Nations. Retrieved from www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf [Last accessed March 13, 2019].Google Scholar
Warner, S. L. N. (2001). The movement to revitalize Hawaiian language and culture. In Hinton, L. & Hale, K. (eds.), The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 133–44.Google Scholar
White, L. (2015). Free to Be Mohawk: Indigenous Education at the Akwesasne Freedom School. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Wilkins, D. E. & Stark, K. T. (2011). Uneven Ground: American Indian Sovereignty and Federal Law. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. H. (2014). Hawaiian: A Native American language official for a state. In Wiley, T. G., Peyton, J. K., Christian, D., Moore, S. C. K. & Liu, N. (eds.), Handbook of Heritage, Community, and Native American Languages in the United States: Research Policy, and Educational Practice. New York and Washington, DC: Routledge and Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 219–28.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. H. & Kamanā, K. (2001). “Mai loko mai o ka ‘i‘ini”: Proceeding from a dream: The ‘Aha Pūnana Leo connection in Hawaiian language revitalization. In Hinton, L. & Hale, K. (eds.), The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 147–76.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. H. & Kamanā, K. (2011). Insights from Indigenous language immersion in Hawai‘i. In Tedick, D. J., Christian, D., & Fortune, T. W. (eds.), Immersion Education: Practices, Policies, Possibilities. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters, pp. 36–57.Google Scholar
Wilson, W. H., Kamanā, K. & Rawlins, N. (2006). Nāwahī Hawaiian Laboratory School. Journal of American Indian Education, 45(2), 42–44.Google Scholar
Wolfe, P. (1999). Settler Colonialism and the Transformation of Anthropology: The Politics and Poetics of an Ethnographic Event. London and New York: Cassell.Google Scholar
Wong, K. L. (2011). Language, fruits, and vegetables. In Romero-Little, M. E., Ortiz, S. J., McCarty, T. L., & Chen, R. (eds.), Indigenous Languages across the Generations – Strengthening Families and Communities. Tempe: Arizona State University Center for Indian Education, pp. 3–16.Google Scholar

References

Baker, C. & Wright, W. (2017). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Bamberg, M. G. (ed.) (1997). Narrative Development: Six Approaches. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bamberg, M., & Georgakopoulou, A. (2008). Small stories as a new perspective in narrative and identity analysis. Text & Talk - An Interdisciplinary Journal of Language, Discourse Communication Studies, 28(3), 377–96.Google Scholar
Collins, B. (2017, July 28). Theft of the blog: Minnesota nice – What is it? Guest blog from Carol MacAllister. Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1qPKnkmymir-BJHcNZ9_7JEUKA6EFeBIs2g35anVd_M0/edit#slide=id.gc6f73a04f_0_9 [Last accessed March 15, 2019].Google Scholar
Davies, B. & Harré, R. (1990). Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20(1), 43–63.Google Scholar
De Fina, A. (2009). Narratives in interview – The case of accounts: For an interactional approach to narrative genres. Narrative Inquiry, 19(2), 233–58.Google Scholar
De Fina, A. (2013). Positioning level 3: Connecting local identity displays to macro social processes. Narrative Inquiry, 23(1), 40–61.Google Scholar
De Fina, A. (2016). Storytelling and audience reactions in social media. Language in Society, 45(4), 473–98.Google Scholar
De Fina, A. & King, K. A. (2011). Language problem or language conflict? Narratives of immigrant women’s experiences in the US. Discourse Studies, 13(2), 163–88.Google Scholar
De Fina, A. & Perrino, S. (2011). Introduction: Interviews vs. ‘natural’ contexts: A false dilemma. Language in Society, 40(1), 1–11.Google Scholar
García, O. & Otheguy, R. (2017). Interrogating the language gap of young bilingual and bidialectal students. International Multilingual Research Journal, 11(1), 52–65.Google Scholar
Hawkins, B. (2014, April 16). LEAPs Act calls for sea change in thinking about language skills and teaching. MinnPost. Retrieved from www.minnpost.com/learning-curve/2014/04/leaps-act-calls-sea-change-thinking-about-language-skills-and-teaching [Last accessed March 15, 2019].Google Scholar
Hirsi, I. (2015, November 5). Minnesotans speak more than 100 languages at home, new data finds. MinnPost. Retrieved from www.minnpost.com/new-americans/2015/11/minnesotans-speak-more-100-languages-home-new-data-finds [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
Hult, F. M. & Johnson, D. C. (2015). Research Methods in Language Policy and Planning: A Practical Guide (Vol. 7). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Johnson, A. (2017). Minnesota Multilingual Equity Network: English Learner-Every Student Succeeds Act Initiative. St. Paul, MN: Coalition of Asian American Leaders & Minnesota Education Equity Partnership.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. C. (2010). Implementational and ideological spaces in bilingual education language policy. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(1), 61–79.Google Scholar
Jones, S. (2009, December 14). Tracing the origin of “Minnesota Nice.” MPR News. Retrieved from www.mprnews.org/story/2009/12/14/syljones [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
King, K. A. & De Fina, A. (2010). Language policy and Latina immigrants: An analysis of personal experience and identity in interview talk. Applied Linguistics, 31(5), 623–50.Google Scholar
Lo Bianco, J. (2001). Officializing language: A discourse study of language politics in the US. Unpublished doctoral thesis, the Australian National University. Retrieved from https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/47661/6/02whole.pdf [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
MAIN [Minnesota Advocates for Immersion Network] (2017). Immersion programs in Minnesota. Retrieved from www.mnimmersion.org/ImmersioninMN [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
Mariani, C. & Torres-Ray, P. (2014). 2014 MN Learning for English Academic Proficiency and Success (LEAPS) Act. PDF Press Release.Google Scholar
Prather, S. (2015, November 7). Attack on diner at Coon Rapids Applebee’s being examine for hate-crime charges. Star Tribune. Retrieved from www.startribune.com/cair-calls-for-hate-crime-charges-in-attack-on-diner-at-coon-rapids-applebee-s/341788292/ [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
Riessman, C. K. (1993). Narrative Analysis (Vol. 30). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.Google Scholar
Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2), 15–34.Google Scholar
Talmy, S. (2010). Qualitative interviews in applied linguistics: From research instrument to social practice. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 128–48.Google Scholar
Thomas, W. P. & Collier, V. P. (2002). A National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students’ Long-Term Academic Achievement. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.Google Scholar
Valdez, V. E., Delavan, G. & Freire, J. A. (2014). The marketing of dual language education policy in Utah print media. Educational Policy, 30(6), 849–83.Google Scholar
Veldof, J. & Bonnema, C. (2014, July 11). Minnesota Nice? It’s like ice. Star Tribune. Retrieved from www.startribune.com/minnesota-nice-it-s-like-ice/266823811/ [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar
Williams, C. P. & Gross Ebinger, C. (2014). The Learning for English Academic Proficiency and Success Act: Ensuring Faithful and Timely Implementation. Minneapolis, The McKnight Foundation. Retrieved from www.mcknight.org/system/asset/document/696/McK.LEAPS_FINAL.pdf [Last accessed March 14, 2019].Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×