Child-Parent Relationships

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499852.003

3 - Child-Parent Relationships

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 September 2009

Frieder R. Lang and

Karen L. Fingerman

Peter Noack and

Heike M. Buhl

Show author details

Frieder R. Lang: Affiliation:
Martin Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenburg, Germany
Karen L. Fingerman: Affiliation:
Purdue University, Indiana
Peter Noack: Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Jena, Am Steiger 3/Haus 1, 07743 Jena, Germany
Heike M. Buhl: Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Jena, Am Steiger 3/Haus 1, 07743 Jena, Germany

Book contents

Get access

Summary

The chapter gives an overview on the development of the relationships of parents and their offspring. While the selection of issues addressed is not meant to be comprehensive, the chapter focuses on conceptualizations and findings of particular relevance: Individuality and relatedness, the active role that parents and their offspring play in shaping their relationship, the importance of a biographical perspective on relationship development, and contextual influences on child-parent relationships. The chapter concludes with consideration of directions for future research.

Child-parent relationships are special. This is obviously true on an individual level. For example, children see their parents as outstanding people – at least up until the transition to adolescence. Likewise, some parents are infatuated with their children and expect much of their sons and daughters, sometimes to the point of overtaxing their abilities and patience. At the same time, child-parent relationships, in general, have features that give them a particular significance. As compared to other types of relationships, bonds between parents and their offspring are of an extremely long-standing nature. Moreover, when parents and children interact, aspects of socialization and education tend to play a more important role than is the case among siblings, friends, or romantic partners. Finally, it has to be recognized that child-parent relationships represent an intergenerational constellation.

Relationships between children and parents surpass most other relationships in duration. We take Germany as a case in point.

Type: Chapter
Information: Growing Together
Personal Relationships Across the Life Span
, pp. 45 - 75

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511499852.003 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Ainsworth, M. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. American Psychologist, 34, 932–937CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Alan, J. P., Hauser, S. T., & Bell, K. L. (1994). Longitudinal assessment of autonomy and relatedness in adolescent-family interactions as predictors of adolescent ego development and self-esteem. Child Development, 65, 179–194CrossRef Google Scholar

Alan, K. R., Blieszner, R., & Roberto, K. A. (2000). Families in the middle and later years: A review and critique of research in the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 911–926CrossRef Google Scholar

Baumrind, D., & Black, A. E. (1967). Socialization practices associated with dimensions of competence in preschool boys and girls. Child Development, 38, 291–327CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bedford, V. H., & Blieszner, R. (1997). Personal relationship in later life families. In S. Duck (Ed.), Handbook of personal relationships (pp. 523–539). New York: Wiley

Belsky, J. (1986). Infant day care: A cause of concern. Zero to Three, 6, 1–9Google Scholar

Belsky, J., Jaffee, S., Hsieh, K.-H., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Child-rearing antecedents of intergenerational relations in young adulthood: A prospective study. Developmental Psychology, 37, 801–813CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bengtson, V. L. (2000). Beyond the nuclear family: The increasing importance of multigenerational bonds. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 1–16CrossRef Google Scholar

Bengtson, V. L., & Kuypers, J. A. (1971). Generational difference and the developmental stake. Aging and Human Development, 2, 249–260CrossRef Google Scholar

Bengtson, V. L., & Roberts, R. E. L. (1991). Intergenerational solidarity in aging families: An example of formal theory construction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 856–870CrossRef Google Scholar

Benjamin, L. S. (1974). Structural analysis of social behavior. Psychological Review, 81, 392–425CrossRef Google Scholar

Berman, W. H., & Sperling, M. B. (1991). Parental attachment and emotional distress in the transition to college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 427–440CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bertram, H. (1995). Die Sicherheit privater Beziehungen [Security in close relations]. In H. Bertram (Ed.), Das Individuum und seine Familie. Lebensformen, Familienbeziehungen und Lebensereignisse im Erwachsenenalter [The individual in the family] (pp. 91–156) (DJI: Familien-Survey 4). Opladen: Leske + Budrich

Blenkner, M. (1965). Social work and family relationships in later life with some thoughts on filial maturity. In E. Shanas & G. F. Streib (Eds.), Social structure and the family (pp. 46–59). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall

Blos, P. (1979). The adolescent passage. New York: International Universities Press

Bodenmann, G. (1997). Dyadic coping: A systemic-transactional view of stress and coping among couples: Theory and empirical findings. European Review of Applied Psychology/Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée, 4, 137–141Google Scholar

Bodenmann, G., Charvoz, L., Cina, A., & Widmer, K. (2001). Prevention of marital distress by enhancing the coping skills of couples: 1-year follow up study. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 60, 3–10CrossRef Google Scholar

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (rev. ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Six theories of child development (pp. 185–246). Greenwich, CT: JAI

Buhl, H. M. (2000). Biographische Übergaenge und Alter als Determinanten der Eltern-Kind-Beziehung im Erwachsenenalter [Biographical transitions and age as determinants of parent-child relationships in adulthood]. Zeitschrift fuer Soziologie der Erziehung und Sozialisation, 20(4), 391–409Google Scholar

Buhl, H. M., Wittmann, S., & Noack, P. (under review). Eltern-Kind-Beziehungen studierender und berufstaetiger junger Erwachsener. [Parent-child relationships of university students and working young adults]

Carlson, C. I., Cooper, C. R., & Spradling, V. Y. (1991). Developmental implications of shared versus distinct perceptions of the family in early adolescence. New Directions for Child Development, 51, 13–31CrossRef Google Scholar

Clarke, E. J., Preston, M., Raksin, J., & Bengtson, V. L. (1999). Types of conflicts and tensions between older parents and adult children. The Gerontologist, 39(3), 261–270CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Collins, W. A. (1991). Shared views and parent-adolescent relationships. New Directions for Child Development, 51, 103–110CrossRef Google Scholar

Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (1994). Families in troubled times. Adapting to change in rural America. New York: Walter de Gruyter

Cooney, T. M., & Uhlenberg, P. (1992). Support from parents over life course: The adult child's perspective. Social Forces, 71(1), 63–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Cowan, C. P., Cowan, P. A., Herring, G., & Miller, N. B. (1991). Becoming a family: Marriage, parenting, and child development. In P. A. Cowan & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.), Family transitions (pp. 79–109). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Crouter, A. C., & McHale, S. M. (1993). The long arm of the job: Influences of parental work on childrearing. In T. Luster & L. Okagaki (Eds.), Parenting: An ecological perspective (pp. 179–202). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Deal, J. E., Hagan, M. S., Bass, B., Hetherington, E. M., & Clingempeel, G. (1999). Marital interaction in dyadic and triadic contexts: Continuities and discontinuities. Family Process, 38, 105–115CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wolff, M. S., & Ijzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dobson, J. E., & Dobson, R. L. (1991). Groups for caretakers of older adults. Changing roles: An aging parents support group. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 16(3), 178–184CrossRef Google Scholar

Dornes, M. (1993). Der kompetente Saeugling. Die praeverbale Entwicklung des Menschen [The competent infant. Preverbal development of human beings]. Frankfurt/M.: Fischer

Dubas, J. S., & Petersen, A. C. (1996). Geographical distance from parents and adjustment during adolescence and young adulthood. In J. A. Graber & J. S. Dubas (Eds.), Leaving home: Understanding the transition to adulthood (pp. 3–19). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-BassCrossRef

Dunn, J., & Plomin, R. (1991). Why are siblings so different? The significance of differences in sibling experiences within the family. Family Process, 30, 271–283CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

East, P. L. (1991). The parent-child relationships of withdrawn, aggressive, and sociable children: Child and parent perspectives. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 425–443Google Scholar

Engstler, H. (1998). Die Familie im Spiegel der amtlichen Statistik [The family as reflected by public statistics]. Bonn: Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. New York: International Universities Press [German ed.: 1973]

Feldman, S. S., & Quatman, T. (1988). Factors influencing age expectations for adolescent autonomy: A study of early adolescents and parents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 8, 325–343CrossRef Google Scholar

Fend, H. (1998). Qualitaet im Bildungswesen. Schulforschungen zu Systembedingungen, Schulprofilen und Lehrerleistungen [Quality in school education]. Weinheim: Juventa

Fingerle, M. (2000). übereinstimmung globaler Selbsteinschaetzung von Jugendlichen und ihrer Einschaetzung durch die Eltern. Konsequenzen für die Selbstkonzeptentwicklung [Agreement of adolescents' self-concept and parental perceptions]. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Jena

Fingerman, K. L. (1995). Aging mothers' and their adult daughters' perceptions of conflict behaviors. Psychology and Aging, 10, 639–649CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fingerman, K. L.(1996). Sources of tension in the aging mother and adult daughter relationship. Psychology and Aging, 11(4), 591–606CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fingerman, K. L.(2000). “We had a nice little chat”: Age and generational differences in mothers' and daughters' descriptions of enjoyable visits. Journal of Gerontology, 55B (2), P95–P106CrossRef Google Scholar

Fischer, L. R. (1981). Transitions in the mother-daughter relationship. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43(3), 613–622CrossRef Google Scholar

Flanagan, C., Schulenberg, J., & Fuligni, A. (1993). Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22(2), 171–189CrossRef Google Scholar

Frank, S., Avery, C. B., & Laman, M. S. (1988). Young adults' perceptions of their relationship with their parents: Individual differences in connectedness, competence, and emotional autonomy. Developmental Psychology, 24(5), 729–737CrossRef Google Scholar

Giarusso, R., Stallings, M., & Bengtson, V. L. (1995). The intergenerational stake hypothesis revisited: Parent-child differences in perceptions of relationships 20 years later. In V. L. Bengtson et al. (eds.), Adult intergenerational relations: Effects of societal change (pp. 227–296). New York: Springer

Gjerde, P. F. (1986). The interpersonal structure of family interaction settings: Parent-adolescent relations in dyads and triads. Developmental Psychology, 22, 297–304CrossRef Google Scholar

Glenn, N. D. (1990). Quantitative research on marital quality in the 1980s: A critical review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 818–831CrossRef Google Scholar

Glenwick, D. S., & Mowrey, J. D. (1986). When parent becomes peer: Loss of intergenerational boundaries in single parent families. Family Relations, 35, 5–62CrossRef Google Scholar

Gloger-Tippelt, G. (1991).Zusammenhaenge zwischen dem Schema vom eigenen Kind vor der Geburt und dem Bindungsverhalten nach der Geburt bei erstmaligen Muettern [Associations between the schema of the firstborn child prior to birth and attachment behavior after birth]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 23, 93–114Google Scholar

Goldscheider, F., & Goldscheider, C. (1999). The changing transition to adulthood. Leaving and returning home. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (2000). The timing of divorce: Predicting when a couple will divorce over a 14-year period. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 737–745CrossRef Google Scholar

Graber, J. A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Reproductive transitions: The experience of mothers and daughters. In C. D. Ryff & M. M. Seltzer (Eds.), The parental experience in midlife (pp. 255–299). Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Graebe, S., & Luescher, K. (1984). Soziale Beziehungen junger Eltern [Social relationships of young parents]. Zeitschrift für Sozialisationsforschung und Erziehungssoziologie, 4(1), 99–121Google Scholar

Griffith, J. (1996). Relation of parental involvement, empowerment, and school traits to student academic performance. Journal of Educational Research, 90, 33–41CrossRef Google Scholar

Grolnick, W. S., & Slowiaczek, M. L. (1994). Parents' involvement in children's schooling: A multidimensional conceptualization and motivational model. Child Development, 65, 237–252CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1985). Patterns of interaction in family relationships and the development of identity exploration in adolescence. Child Development, 56, 415–428CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hansen, D. A. (1986). Family-school articulations: The effects of interaction rule mismatch. Educational Research Journal, 23, 643–659Google Scholar

Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption. New York: Free Press

Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental task and education (3rd ed.). New York: McKay

Hess, R. D. (1980). Maternal expectations for mastery of developmental tasks in Japan and the United States. International Journal of Psychology, 15, 259–271CrossRef Google Scholar

Hinde, R. (1993). Auf dem Wege zu einer Wissenschaft zwischenmenschlicher Beziehungen [Toward a science of interpersonal relationships]. In A. E. Auhagen & M. Salisch (Eds.), Zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen (pp. 11–36). Göttingen: Hogrefe

Hofer, M. (1992). Die Familie mit Schulkindern [Families with school kids]. In M. Hofer, E. Klein-Allermann, & P. Noack (Eds.), Familienbeziehungen [Family relationships] (pp. 171–193). Göttingen: Hogrefe

Hoffman, J. A. (1984). Psychological separation of late adolescents from their parents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 170–178CrossRef Google Scholar

Hoffman, L. W. (1987). The value of children and childrearing patterns. Social Behaviour, 2, 123–141Google Scholar

Honess, T., & Robinson, M. (1993). Assessing parent-adolescent relationships: A review of current research issues and methods. In A. E. Jackson & H. Rodriguez-Tome (Eds.), Adolescence and its social worlds (pp. 47–66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Jurgan, S., Gloger-Tippelt, G., & Ruge, K. (1999). Veraenderungen der elterlichen Partnerschaft in den ersten 5 Jahren nach der Elternschaft [Changes in marital relations during the first 5 years after parenthood]. In B. Reichle & H. Werneck (Eds.), Übergang zur Elternschaft [Transition to parenthood] (pp. 37–51). Stuttgart: Enke

Kalicki, B., Peitz, G., Fthenakis, W. E., & Engfer, A. (1999). Passungskonstellation und Anpassungsprozesse beim Übergang zur Elternschaft [Processes of fit and adaptation during the transition to parenthood]. In B. Reichle & H. Werneck (Eds.), Übergang zur Elternschaft (pp. 129–146). Stuttgart: EnkeCrossRef

Kandel, D. B. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 427–436CrossRef Google Scholar

Kaufman, G., & Uhlenberg, P. (1998). Effects of life course transitions on the quality of relationships between adult children and their parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 924–938CrossRef Google Scholar

Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Klass, D., Silverman, P. R., & Nickman, S. L. (Eds.) (1996). Continuing bonds: New understandings of grief. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis

Kohli, M., & Kuehnemund, H. (Eds.). (2000). Die zweite Lebenshaelfte. Gesellschaftliche Lage und Partizipation im Spiegel des Alten-Survey [The second half of life]. Opladen: Leske + Budrich

Kohn, M. L. (1963). Social class and parent-child relationships: An interpretation. American Journal of Sociology, 68, 471–480CrossRef Google Scholar

Kohn, M. L., Naoi, A., & Schoenbach, C. (1990). Position in the class structure and psychological functioning in the United States, Japan, and Poland. American Journal of Sociology, 95, 964–1008CrossRef Google Scholar

Kreppner, K., Paulsen, S., & Schuetze, Y. (1982). Infant and family development: From triads to tetrads. Human Development, 25, 373–391CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Krumm, V. (1998). Elternhaus und Schule [Parental home and school]. In D. H. Rost (Hrsg.), Handwoerterbuch Paedagogische Psychologie (pp. 81–85). Weinheim: Beltz

Lamborn, S., Mounts, N., Steinberg, L., & Dornbush, S. M. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 62, 1049–1065CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lanz, M., Scabini, E., Vermulst, A. A., & Gerris, J. R. M. (2001). Congruence on child rearing in families with early adolescent and middle adolescent children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 133–139CrossRef Google Scholar

Laursen, B. (1995). Conflict and social interaction in adolescent relationships. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 55–70CrossRef Google Scholar

Laursen, B., Coy, K. C., & Collins, W. A. (1998). Reconsidering changes in parent-child conflict across adolescence: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 69, 817–832CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lewis, R. A. (1990). The adult child and older parents. In T. H. Brubaker (Ed.), Family Relationships in later life (pp. 68–85). Newbury Park, NJ: SageCrossRef

Luescher, K., & Pillemer, K. (1998). Intergenerational ambivalence: A new approach to the study of parent-child relations in later life. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 413–425CrossRef Google Scholar

Lye, D. N. (1996). Adult child-parent relationships. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 79–102CrossRef Google Scholar

Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in the socialization of children: An historical overview. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1006–1017CrossRef Google Scholar

Mahler, M., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psychoanalytical birth of the human infant. New York: Basic Books

Marini, M. M. (1984). The order of events in the transition to adulthood. Sociology of Education, 57, 63–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Marks, N. F. (1995). Midlife marital status differences in social support relationships with adult children and psychological well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 16(1), 5–28CrossRef Google Scholar

McCubbin, H. J., & Patterson, J. M. (1983). The family stress process: The double ABCX model of adjustment and adaptation. Marriage and Family Review, 6, 7–37CrossRef Google Scholar

McGoldrick, M. S. W., & Carter, E. A. (1982). The family life cycle. In F. Walsh (Ed.), Normal family processes (pp. 167–195). New York: Guilford

McHale, S. M., & Huston, T. L. (1985). The effects of the transition to parenthood on the marriage relationship: A longitudinal study. Journal of Family Issues, 6, 409–434CrossRef Google Scholar

Minuchin, P. (1985). Families and individual development: Provocations from the field of family therapy. Child Development, 56, 289–302CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nauck, B. (2001). Der Wert von Kindern fuer ihre Eltern. “Value of Children” als spezielle Handlungstheorie des generativen Verhaltens und von Generationenbeziehungen im interkulturellen Vergleich [The value of children. “Value of Children” as a specific theory of goal-directed action of reproductive behavior and of intergenerational relationships in cross-cultural comparison]. Koelner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, LIII, 407–435CrossRef Google Scholar

Nauck, B. (2002). http://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/soziologie/nauck/index.htm

Neyer, F.-J. (1999). Die Persoenlichkeit junger Erwachsener in verschiedenen Lebensformen [The personality of young adults in different living arrangements]. Koelner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 51(3), 491–508Google Scholar

Noack, P. (2002). Familie und Peers [Family and peers]. In M. Hofer, E. Wild, & P. Noack (Eds.), Lehrbuch Familienbeziehungen (pp. 143–167). Göttingen: Hogrefe

Noack, P., & Buhl, H. M. (1999). Relations with parents and friends during adolescence and early adulthood. Unpublished manuscript, University of Jena

Noack, P., & Kracke, B. (1992). Developmental timetables for adolescence. Similarities and differences between adolescents, their mothers, fathers, and friends. Poster presented at the Sixth European Conference on Developmental Psychology, Seville, Spain, September

Noack, P., & Kracke, B. (2002). Problem behavior and parenting: Child rearing behavior as a dependent variable? Paper presented at the 4th Conference of the International Academy of Family Psychology, Heidelberg, Germany, April

Noack, P., Oepke, M., & Sassenberg, K. (1998). Individuation in Familien mit Jugendlichen nach der deutschen Vereinigung [Individuation in families with adolescents after German unification]. Zeitschrift für Sozialisationsforschung und Erziehungssoziologie, 2, 199–214Google Scholar

Noack, P., & Puschner, B. (1999). Differential trajectories of parent-child relationships and psychosocial adjustment in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 795–804CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nydegger, C. N. (1991). The development of paternal and filial maturity. In K. A. Pillmer (Ed.), Parent-child relations throughout life (pp. 93–112). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Ohanessian, C. M., Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., & Eye, A. (1995). Discrepancies in adolescents' and parents' perceptions of family functioning and adolescent emotional adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15, 490–516CrossRef Google Scholar

Oswald, H., Baker, D. P., & Stevenson, D. L. (1988) School charter and parental management in West Germany. Sociology of Education, 61, 255–265CrossRef Google Scholar

Papastefanou, C. (2002). Die Erweiterung der Familienbeziehung und die Geschwisterbeziehung [The extension of the family relationship and the sibling relationship]. In M. Hofer, E. Wild, & P. Noack (Eds.), Lehrbuch Familienbeziehungen [Family relationships] (pp. 192–215). Göttingen: Hogrefe

Parrott, T. M., & Bengtson, V. L. (1999). The effects of earlier intergenerational affection, normative expectations, and family conflict on contemporary exchanges of help and support. Research on Aging, 21(1), 73–105CrossRef Google Scholar

Phillips, D., McCartney, K., Scarr, S., & Howes, C. (1987). Selective review of infant day care research: A cause for concern. Zero to Three, 1, 18–21Google Scholar

Plomin, R. (1994). Genetics and experience: The interplay between nature and nurture. Thousand Oaks: Sage

Plomin, R., McClearn, C. E., Pedersen, N. L., Nesselroade, J. R., & Bergeman, C. S. (1989). Genetic influence on adults' ratings of their current family environment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 791–803CrossRef Google Scholar

Raphael, D., & Schlesinger, B. (1993). Caring for elderly parents and adult children living at home: Interactions of the sandwich generation family. Social Work Research and Abstracts, 29(1), 3–8CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Reichle, B., & Montada, L. (1999). Übergang zur Elternschaft und Folgen: Der Umgang mit Veraenderungen macht Unterschiede [Transition to parenthood and its consequences: The way of dealing with changes makes a difference]. In B. Reichle & H. Werneck (Eds.), Übergang zur Elternschaft (pp. 205–224). Stuttgart: EnkeCrossRef

Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., Plomin, R., Howe, G. W. et al. (1995). Genetic questions for environmental studies: Differential parenting and psychopathology in adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Roberts, R. E. L., & Bengtson, V. L. (1993). Relationships with parents, self-esteem, and psychological well-being in young adulthood. Social Psychology Quarterly, 56(4), 263–277CrossRef Google Scholar

Rossi, A. S., & Rossi, P. H. (1990). Of human bonding. Parent-child relations across the life course. New York: De Gruyter

Rowe, D. C. (1994). The limits of family influence. New York: Guilford

Ryan, R. M., & Lynch, J. H. (1989). Emotional autonomy versus detachment: Revisiting the vicissitudes of adolescence and young adulthood. Child Development, 60, 593–606CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Scabini, E., & Galimberti, C. (1995). Adolescents and young adults: A transition in the family. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 593–606CrossRef Google Scholar

Schaffer, H. R. (1999). Understanding socialization: From unidirectional to bidirectional conceptions. In M. Bennett (Ed.), Developmental psychology (pp. 272–288). Philadelphia: Psychology Press

Schnaiberg, A., & Goldenberg, S. (1989). From empty nest to crowded nest: The dynamics of incompletely launched young adults. Social Problems, 36(3), 251–269CrossRef Google Scholar

Schneewind, K. A. (1995). Familienentwicklung [Family development]. In R. Oerter & L. Montada (Eds.), Entwicklungspsychologie (pp. 128–166). Weinheim: Beltz

Schneewind, K. A., Beckmann, M., & Engfer, A. (1983). Eltern und Kinder [Parents and children]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer

Schneewind, K. A., Ruppert, S., & Harrow, J. (1998). Personality and family development: An intergenerational longitudinal comparison. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

Schwarz, B., & Noack, P. (2002). Scheidung und Ein-Elternteilfamilien [Divorce and single-parent families]. In M. Hofer, E. Wild, & P. Noack (Eds.), Lehrbuch Familienbeziehungen (pp. 312–335). Göttingen: Hogrefe

Shmotkin, D. (1999). Affective bonds of adult children with living versus deceased parents. Psychology and Aging, 14(3), 473–482CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Silbereisen, R. K., Robins, L., & Rutter, M. (1995). Secular trends in substance use: Concepts and data on the impact of social change on alcohol and drug use. In M. Rutter & D. J. Smith (Eds.), Psychosocial disorders in young people (pp. 490–543). Chichester: Wiley

Silverstein, M. C., Wang, H., Giarusso, R., & Bengtson, V. L. (2002). Reciprocity in parent-child relations over the adult life course. Journal of Gerontology, 57B, 3–13CrossRef Google Scholar

Singh, B. K., Williams, J. S., & Singh, B. B. (1998). An examination of extended family residence sharing predispositions in the United States: 1973–1989. Marriage and Family Review, 27(1/2), 131–143CrossRef Google Scholar

Smollar, J., & Youniss, J. (1989). Transformations of adolescents' perceptions of parents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 12, 71–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Spitze, G., & Ward, R. (1995). Household labor in intergenerational households. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 355–361CrossRef Google Scholar

Statistisches Bundesamt (2001). Weitere Zunahme der Lebenserwartung [Further increase of life expectancy]. http://www.statistik-bund.de/presse/deutsch/pm2000/p4470022.htm

Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1095CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Stattin, H., & Klackenberg, G. (1992). Family discord in adolescence in the light of family discord in childhood: The maternal perspective. In W. Meeus, M. de Goede, W. Kox, & K. Hurrelmann (Eds.), Adolescence, careers, and cultures (pp. 143–161). Berlin: De Gruyter

Steinberg, L. (1990). Autonomy, conflict, and harmony in the family relationship. In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold (pp. 255–276). Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Steinberg, L. (2001). Adolescence (6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill

Steinberg, L., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S., & Dornbush, S. M. (1991). Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment across various ecological niches. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 1, 19–36Google Scholar

Steinberg, L., & Silverberg, S. B. (1986). The vicissitudes of autonomy in early adolescence. Child Development, 57, 841–851CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Steinberg, L., & Steinberg, W. (1994). Crossing paths: How your child's adolescence triggers your own crisis. New York: Simon & Schuster

Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93, 119–135CrossRef Google Scholar

Tesson, G., & Youniss, J. (1995). Micro-sociology and psychological development. Sociological Studies of Children, 7, 101–126Google Scholar

Thompson, R. A. (1997). Sensitivity and security: New questions to ponder. Child Development, 68, 595–597CrossRef Google Scholar

Tubman, J. G., & Lerner, R. M. (1994). Continuity and discontinuity in the affective experiences of parents and children: Evidence from the New York longitudinal study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64, 112–125CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Umberson, D., & Chen, M. D. (1994). Effects of a parent's death on adult children: Relationship salience and reaction to loss. American Sociological Review, 59, 152–168CrossRef Google Scholar

Boom, D. C. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: An experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among lower-class mothers and irritable infants. Child Development, 65, 1457–1477CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Boom, D. C. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: Next steps for developmentalists. Child Development, 68, 592–594CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Wolff, M. S. (1997). In search of the absent father–meta-analyses of infant-father attachment: A rejoinder to our discussants. Child Development, 68, 604–609CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Veevers, J. E., & Mitchell, B. A. (1998). Intergenerational exchanges and perceptions of support within “boomerang kid” family environments. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 46(2), 91–108CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Vines, D. S. (1998). A conceptualization of divorced single-mother families from a structural perspective. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B, 59, 0462Google Scholar

Wallace, P. M., & Gotlib, I. H. (1990). Marital adjustment during the transition to parenthood: Stability and predictors of change. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 21–29CrossRef Google Scholar

Waters, E., Weinfield, N. S., & Hamilton, C. E. (2000). The stability of attachment security from infancy to adolescence and early adulthood: General discussion. Child Development, 71, 703–706CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wheeler, I. (2001). Parental bereavement: The crisis of meaning. Death Studies, 25, 51–66CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

White, K. M., Speisman, J. C., & Costos, D. (1983). Young adults and their parents: Individuation to mutuality. In H. D. Grotevant & C. R. Cooper (Eds.), Adolescent development in the family (pp. 61–76). San Francisco: Jossey-BassCrossRef

Wild, E., & Hofer, M. (2002). Familien mit Schulkindern [Families with children in school]. In M. Hofer, E. Wild, & P. Noack (Eds.), Familienbeziehungen [Family relationships] (pp. 216–240). Göttingen: Hogrefe

Wintre, M. G., Yaffe, M., & Crowley, J. (1995). Perception of Parental Reciprocity Scale (POPRS): Development and validation with adolescents and young adults. Social Development, 4, 129–148CrossRef Google Scholar

Yamaguchi, K., & Kandel, D. B. (1997). The influence of spouses' behavior and marital dissolution on marijuana use: Causation or selection. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 22–36CrossRef Google Scholar

Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985) Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers, and friends. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press

Zank, S. (2002). Familien mit Kindern im mittleren Erwachsenenalter [Families with children in middle adulthood]. In M. Hofer, E. Wild, & P. Noack (Eds.), Familienbeziehungen [Family relationships] (2nd ed.) (pp. 290–311). Göttingen: Hogrefe