Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T19:19:46.755Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 2 - Societal Determinants and Determination of Health

from Section 1 - Global Health: Definitions and Descriptions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2021

By
Anne-Emanuelle Birn  and
Ramya Kumar
Edited by
Solomon Benatar  and
Gillian Brock
Solomon Benatar
Affiliation:
Emeritus Professor of Medicine, University of Cape Town
Gillian Brock
Affiliation:
Professor of Philosophy, University of Auckland
Get access

Summary

In 2017, Cubans lived, on average, to the age of 79 years – the same as in the United States (World Bank, 2019a). Yet US per capita income is approximately eight times that of Cuba (World Bank, 2019b). Similarly, Sri Lankans – earning US$4,060 per capita annually – had a life expectancy of 77 years (World Bank, 2019a, 2019b), 2 years more than in the state of Mississippi (USA), where annual per capita income is more than fivefold higher at US$22,500 (National Geographic, 2018; United States Census Bureau, n.d.). What makes Cubans and Sri Lankans live as long as or longer than those in significantly richer countries like the United States?

Type
Chapter
Information
Global Health
Ethical Challenges
 , pp. 28 - 50
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Austin, K. F., DeScisciolo, C., and Samuelsen, L. (2016). The failures of privatization: a comparative investigation of tuberculosis rates and the structure of healthcare in less-developed nations, 1995–2010. World Development, 78, 450–460.Google Scholar
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2019). Deaths in Australia. AIHW, July 17 (online). Available at www.aihw.gov.au/reports/life-expectancy-death/deaths-in-australia/contents/life-expectancy.Google Scholar
Bailey, Z. D., & Moon, J. R. (2020). Racism and the political economy of COVID-19: will we continue to resurrect the past? Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1215/03616878-8641481 (accessed June 22, 2020).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, B. K. (2010). The impact of the International Monetary Fund’s macroeconomic policies on the AIDS pandemic. International Journal of Health Services, 40(2), 347–363.Google Scholar
Bambra, C. (2011). Work, Worklessness, and the Political Economy of Health. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Barquera, S., Schillinger, D., Aguilar-Salinas, C.A., et al. (2018). Collaborative research and actions on both sides of the US-Mexico border to counteract type 2 diabetes in people of Mexican origin. Global Public Health, 14(1), 84.Google Scholar
Basu, S., Yoffe, P., Hills, N., et al. (2013). The relationship of sugar to population-level diabetes prevalence: an econometric analysis of repeated cross-sectional data. PLoS One, 8(2), e57873.Google Scholar
Baum, F. E., Sanders, D. M., Fisher, M., et al. (2016). Assessing the health impact of transnational corporations: its importance and a framework. Globalization and Health, 12(27), 1–7.Google Scholar
Beckfield, J., Bambra, C., Eikemo, T. A., et al. (2015). An institutional theory of welfare state effects on the distribution of population health. Social Theory and Health, 13(3), 227–244.Google Scholar
Benach, J., Vives, A., Amable, M., et al. (2014). Precarious employment: understanding an emerging social determinant of health. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 229–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benatar, D. (2012). The Second Sexism: Discrimination against Men and Boys. Chichester, UK: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergad, L. (2007). The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Berkman, L. F., & Kawachi, I. (2014). A historical framework for social epidemiology: social determinants of population health, in Berkman, L. F., Kawachi, I., & Glymour, M. M. (eds.), Social Epidemiology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1–16.Google Scholar
Berkman, L. F., Kawachi, I., & Theorell, T. (2014). Working conditions and health, in Berkman, L. F., Kawachi, I., and Glymour, M. M. (eds.), Social Epidemiology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 153–181.Google Scholar
Bhambra, G. K., & Holmwood, J. (2018). Colonialism, postcolonialism and the liberal welfare state. New Political Economy, 23(5), 574–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birn, A. E. (2009). Making it politic(al): Closing the Gap in a Feneration – health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Social Medicine, 4(3), 166–182.Google Scholar
Black, S. D., & Research Working Group (Morris, J. N., Smith, C., & Townsend, P.) (1980). Inequalities in Health: Report of a Research Working Group. London: Department of Health and Social Security.Google Scholar
Bond, P., & Browder, L. (2019). Deracialized nostalgia, reracialized community, and truncated gentrification: capital and cultural flows in Richmond, Virginia, and Durban, South Africa. Journal of Cultural Geography, 36(2), 211–245.Google Scholar
Borrell, C., Palència, L., Muntaner, C., et al. (2013). Influence of macrosocial policies on women’s health and gender inequalities in health. Epidemiologic Reviews, 36, 31–48.Google Scholar
Braveman, P. (2014). What is health equity: and how does a life-course approach take us further toward it? Maternal and Child Health Journal, 18(2), 366–372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braveman, P., Heck, K., Egerter, S., et al. (2015). The role of socioeconomic factors in black–white disparities in preterm birth. American Journal of Public Health, 105(4), 694–702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breilh, J.(2013). La determinación social de la salud como herramienta de transformación hacia una nueva salud pública (salud colectiva). Revista Facultad Nacional de Salud Pública, 31(suppl. 1), 13–27.Google Scholar
Bryce, P. (1922). The Story of a National Crime, Being an Appeal for Justice to the Indians of Canada: The Wards of the Nation, Our Allies in the Revolutionary War, Our Brothers-in-Arms in the Great War. Ottawa: J. Hope.Google Scholar
Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Canadian Institute for Health Information (2019). Life Expectancy at Birth (online). Available at https://yourhealthsystem.cihi.ca/hsp/inbrief?lang=en#!/indicators/011/life-expectancy-at-birth/;mapC1;mapLevel2;/.Google Scholar
Coburn, D. (2011). Global health: a political economy of historical trends and contemporary inequalities, in Teeple, G., & McBride, S. (eds.), Relations of Global Power: Neoliberal Order and Disorder. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 118–151.Google Scholar
Connell, R. (2012). Gender, health and theory: conceptualizing the issue, in local and world perspective. Social Science and Medicine, 74(11), 1675–1683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crammond, B. R., & Carey, G. (2016). Policy change for the social determinants of health: the strange irrelevance of social epidemiology. Evidence and Policy: A Journal of Research, Debate and Practice (epub ahead of publication).Google Scholar
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Czyzewski, K. (2011). Colonialism as a broader social determinant of health. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 2(1).Google Scholar
Das, V. (2015). Affliction: Health, Disease, Poverty. New York: Fordham University Press.Google Scholar
de Andrade, L. O. M., Pellegrini, A., Solar, O., et al. (2015). Social determinants of health, universal health coverage, and sustainable development: case studies from Latin American countries. Lancet, 385(9975), 1343–1351.Google Scholar
Declaration of Nyeleni (2007). Available at https://nyeleni.org/IMG/pdf/DeclNyeleni-en.pdf.Google Scholar
De Neve, G., & Prentice, R. (2017). Introduction: rethinking garment workers’ health and safety, in Prentice, R., & De Neve, G. (eds.), Unmaking the Global Sweatshop: Health and Safety of the Worlds’ Garment Workers. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 1–25.Google Scholar
Domingues, R., Viellas, E. F., Dias, M. A. B., et al. (2015). Adequacy of prenatal care according to maternal characteristics in Brazil. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública, 37(3), 140–147.Google Scholar
Dorling, D. (2015). All That Is Solid. How the Great Housing Disaster Defines Our Times, and What We Can Do About It. London: Penguin UK.Google Scholar
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (2014). Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America: Progress in the Past Decade and Remaining Challenges (English Summary). Santiago, Chile: ECLAC.Google Scholar
Epstein, G. (2005). Financialization and the World Economy. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.Google Scholar
European Commission (2014). Roma Health Report: Health Status of the Roma Population. Data Collection in the Member States of the European Union. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
Ezeh, A., Oyebode, O., Satterthwaite, D., et al. (2017). The history, geography, and sociology of slums and the health problems of people who live in slums. Lancet, 389(10068), 547–558.Google Scholar
Fine, B. (2012). Financialization and social policy, in Utting, P., Razavi, S., & Buchholz, R. V. (eds.), The Global Crisis and Transformative Social Change. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 103–122.Google Scholar
Food and Agriculture Organization (2018). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Building Climate Resilience for Food Security and Nutrition. Rome: FAO.Google Scholar
Forouzanfar, M. H., Alexander, L., Anderson, H. R., et al. (2015). Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet, 386(10010), 2287–2323.Google Scholar
Freire, P. (2012 [1970]). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Freudenberg, N. (2014). Lethal but Legal: Corporations, Consumption, and Protecting Public Health. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ganatra, D., Gerdts, C., Rossier, C., et al. (2017). Global, regional, and subregional classification of abortions by safety, 2010–2014: estimates from a Bayesian hierarchical model. Lancet, 390(10110), 2372–2381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giroux, H. (2010). Rethinking education as the practice of freedom: Paulo Freire and the promise of critical pedagogy, Policy Futures in Education, 8(6), 715–721.Google Scholar
Glymour, M. M., Avendano, M., & Kawachi, I. (2014). Socioeconomic status and health, in Berkman, L. F., Kawachi, I., & Glymour, M. M. (eds.), Social Epidemiology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 17–62.Google Scholar
Gloyd, S. (1987). Child survival and resource scarcity. Paper presented at the International Congress of the World Federation of Public Health Associations, Mexico City. March 1987.Google Scholar
Gnan, G. H., Rahman, Q., Ussher, G., et al. (2019). General and LGBTQ-specific factors associated with mental health and suicide risk among LGBTQ students. Journal of Youth Studies 22(10), 1393–1408.Google Scholar
Habitat for Humanity (2015). World Habitat Day 2015 Key Housing Facts (online). Available at www.habitat.org/getinv/events/world-habitat-day/housing-facts.Google Scholar
Hamalainen, P., Takala, J., & Kiat, T. B. (2017). Global Estimates of Occupational Accidents and Work-Related Illness 2017. Singapore: Workplace Safety and Health Institute (online). Available at www.icohweb.org/site/images/news/pdf/Report%20Global%20Estimates%20of%20Occupational%20Accidents%20and%20Work-related%20Illnesses%202017%20rev1.pdf.Google Scholar
Harris, R., Cormack, D., Tobias, M., et al. (2012). The pervasive effects of racism: experiences of racial discrimination in New Zealand over time and associations with multiple health domains. Social Science and Medicine, 74(3), 408–415.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (2006). Spaces of Global Capitalism: Towards a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Harvey, D. (2010). The Enigma of Capital. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hawkes, C. (2006). Uneven dietary development: linking the policies and processes of globalization with the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases. Globalization and Health, 2(1), 4.Google Scholar
Hickel, J. (2016). The true extent of global poverty and hunger: questioning the good news narrative of the Millennium Development Goals. Third World Quarterly, 37(5), 749–767.Google Scholar
Holla, R., & Ittyerah, A. (2018). Agricultural crisis in India and its impact on nutrition. World Nutrition, 9(3), 292–313.Google Scholar
Hunter, B. M., & Murray, S. F., 2019. Deconstructing the financialization of healthcare. Development and Change, 50(5), 1263–1287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hwang, S. W., Gogosis, E., Chambers, C., et al. (2011). Health status, quality of life, residential stability, substance use, and healthcare utilization among adults applying to a supportive housing program. Journal of Urban Health, 88(6), 1076–1090.Google Scholar
Imoka, C. (2019). A decolonial analysis of student success in Nigerian secondary schools. PhD dissertation, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization (2015a). Global Trends on Occupational Accidents and Diseases. World Day for Safety and Health at Work, April 28 (online). Available at www.ilo.org/legacy/english/osh/en/story_content/external_files/fs_st_1-ILO_5_en.pdf.Google Scholar
International Labour Organization (2015b). Hazardous work (online). Available at www.ilo.org/safework/areasofwork/hazardous-work/lang–en/index.htm.Google Scholar
International Organization for Migration. (2017). World Migration Report 2018. Available at www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/docs/china/r5_world_migration_report_2018_en.pdf.Google Scholar
Jacob, C., Baird, J., Barker, M., et al. (n.d). The Importance of a Life Course Approach to Health: Chronic Disease Risk from Preconception through Adolescence and Adulthood (online). Available at www.who.int/life-course/publications/life-course-approach-to-health.pdf.Google Scholar
Kapilashrami, A., Hill, S., & Meer, N. (2015). What can health inequalities researchers learn from an intersectionality perspective? Understanding social dynamics with an inter-categorical approach? Social Theory and Health 13, 288–307.Google Scholar
Klein, N. (2014). This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. the Climate. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Krieger, N. (2007). Why epidemiologists cannot afford to ignore poverty. Epidemiology, 18(6), 658–663.Google Scholar
Krieger, N. (2008). Proximal, distal, and the politics of causation: what’s level got to do with it? American Journal of Public Health, 98(2), 221–230.Google Scholar
Krieger, N. (2011). Epidemiology and the People’s Health: Theory and Context. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Krieger, N., Chen, J. T., Coull, B., et al. (2013). The unique impact of abolition of Jim Crow laws on reducing inequities in infant death rates and implications for choice of comparison groups in analyzing societal determinants of health. American Journal of Public Health, 103(12), 2234–2244.Google Scholar
Krieger, N. (2014a). Discrimination and health inequities. International Journal of Health Services, 44(4), 643–710.Google Scholar
Krieger, N. (2014b). Got theory? On the 21st c. CE rise of explicit use of epidemiologic theories of disease distribution: a review and ecosocial analysis. Current Epidemiology Reports 1(1), 45–56.Google Scholar
Kubzansky, L.D., Winning, A., & Kawachi, I. (2014). Affective states and health, in Berkman, L. F., Kawachi, I., & Glymour, M. M. (eds.), Social Epidemiology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 320–364.Google Scholar
Loewenson, R., & Gilson, L. (2012). The health system and wider social determinants of health, in Smith, R. D., & Hanson, K. (eds.), Health Systems in Low-and Middle-Income Countries: An Economic and Policy Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 219–242.Google Scholar
Lori, J. R., & Boyle, J. S. (2015). Forced migration: health and human rights issues among refugee populations. Nursing Outlook, 63(1):68–76.Google Scholar
Lucchini, R. G., & London, L. (2014). Global occupational health: current challenges and the need for urgent action. Annals of Global Health, 80(4):251–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macinko, J., Starfield, B., & Erinosho, T. (2009). The impact of primary healthcare on population health in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 32(2), 150–171.Google Scholar
Mackenbach, J. P. (2015). Socioeconomic inequalities in health in high-income countries: the facts and the options, in Detels, R., Gulliford, M., Karim, Q. A., & Tan, C. C. (eds), Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, M., Collins, C., Connolly, J., et al. (2017). Working-class discourses of politics, policy and health: “I don’t smoke; I don’t drink. The only thing wrong with me is my health.” Policy & Politics, 45(2), 231–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marmot, M. G. (2005). The social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet, 365(9464), 1099–1104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marmot, M., & Brunner, E. (2005). Cohort profile: the Whitehall II study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 34(2), 251–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martínez Franzoni, J., & Sánchez-Ancochea, D. (2013). Can Latin American production regimes complement universalistic welfare regimes? Implications from the Costa Rican case. Latin American Research Review, 48(2):148–173.Google Scholar
Mathews, T. J., MacDorman, M. F., & Thoma, M. E. (2015). Infant mortality statistics from the 2013 period linked birth/infant death data set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 64(9):1–30.Google Scholar
Mawani, F. (2019). Conceptualization, measurement, and association of underemployment to mental health inequities between immigrant and Canadian-born labour force participants. PhD dissertation, University of Toronto.Google Scholar
McEvoy, C., & Hide, G. (2017). Global Violent Deaths 2017: Time to Decide. Geneva: Small Arms Survey (online). Available at www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/U-Reports/SAS-Report-GVD2017.pdf.Google Scholar
McNeill, J. R. (2000). Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World (The Global Century Series). New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
Migration Data Portal (2019). Migration Deaths and Disappearances (online). Available at www.unhcr.org/desperatejourneys/.Google Scholar
National Geographic (2018). If you’re an average American, you’ll live to be 78.6 years old (online). Available at www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/2018/12/life-expectancy-united-states/.Google Scholar
National Inquiry into Murdered and Missing Indigenous Women and Girls (2019). Executive Summary of the Final Report: National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (online). Available at www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Executive_Summary.pdf.Google Scholar
Ng, E., & Muntaner, C. (2014). A critical approach to macrosocial determinants of population health: engaging scientific realism and incorporating social conflict. Current Epidemiology Reports, 1(1), 27–37.Google Scholar
Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Khreis, H., Verlinghieri, E., & Rojas-Rueda, D. (2016). Transport and health: a marriage of convenience or an absolute necessity. Environment International 88, 150–152.Google Scholar
O’Hara, J. (2013). The $11 Trillion Reward: How Simple Dietary Changes Can Save Lives and Money, and How We Get There. Cambridge, UK: Union of Concerned Scientists.Google Scholar
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2015). OECD Income Distribution Database (IDD): Gini, Poverty, Income, Methods and Concepts (online). Available at www.oecd.org/social/income-distribution-database.htm (accessed July 16, 2015).Google Scholar
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2020). Homeless Population (online). Available at www.oecd.org/els/family/HC3-1-Homeless-population.pdf.Google Scholar
Otero, G. (2011). Neoliberal globalization, NAFTA, and migration: Mexico’s loss of food and labor sovereignty. Journal of Poverty, 15(4), 384–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oxfam, (2018). Ripe for Change: Ending Human Suffering in Supermarket Supply Chains. Oxfam GB, Oxford, UK (online). Available at www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments/cr-ripe-for-change-supermarket-supply-chains-210618-en.pdf.Google Scholar
Oxfam, . (2019). False Promises. Oxfam GB, Oxford, UK (online). Available at https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620720/bp-world-bank-education-ppps-090419-summ-en.pdf.Google Scholar
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., et al. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 10(9), e0138511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perera, I., & Nagaraj, V. (2017). The Meethotamulla tragedy: the face, not failure, of development. Groundviews, April 18 (online). Available at https://groundviews.org/2017/04/18/the-meethotamulla-tragedy-the-face-not-failure-of-development/.Google Scholar
Pickett, K. E., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2015). Income inequality and health: a causal review. Social Science & Medicine, 128, 316–326.Google Scholar
Potente, C., & Monden, C. (2018). Disability pathways preceding death in England by socio-economic status. Population Studies, 72(2), 175–190.Google Scholar
Raifman, J. (2018). Sanctioned stigma in health care settings and harm to LGBT youth. JAMA Pediatr, 172(8), 713–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rao, M., Afshin, A., Singh, G., et al. (2013). Do healthier foods and diet patterns cost more than less healthy options? A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 3(12), e004277.Google Scholar
Reddy, D. N., and Mishra, S. (eds.) (2010). Agrarian Crisis in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reverby, S. (2012). Ethical failures and history lessons: the US Public Health Service research studies in Tuskegee and Guatemala. Public Health Reviews, 34(1), 1–18.Google Scholar
Riosmena, F., Frank, R., Akresh, I. R., & Kroeger, R. A. (2012). US migration, translocality, and the acceleration of the nutrition transition in Mexico. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 102(5), 1209–1218.Google Scholar
Roeder, A. (2019). America is failing black mothers. Harvard Public Health (Winter) (online). Available at www.hsph.harvard.edu/magazine/magazine_article/america-is-failing-its-black-mothers/.Google Scholar
Rose, G., & Marmot, M. G. (1981). Social class and coronary heart disease. British Heart Journal, 45(1), 13–19.Google Scholar
Roux, A. V., & Mair, C. (2010). Neighborhoods and health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186(1), 125–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruckert, A., & Labonté, R. (2014). The social determinants of health, in Brown, G. W., Yamey, G., & Wamala, S. (eds.), The Handbook of Global Health Policy. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, pp. 267–285.Google Scholar
Samman, E., Ravallion, M., Pritchett, L., et al. (2013). Eradicating global poverty: a noble goal, but how do we measure it?. ODI Working Paper No. 2, Overseas Development Institute, London (online). Available at www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/8440.pdf.Google Scholar
Schrecker, T., & Bambra, C. (2015). How Politics Makes Us Sick: Neoliberal Epidemics. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sehgal, M., & Krishnan, A. (2013). Indoor Air Pollution and Child Health in India: Child Poverty Insights. New York: UNICEF.Google Scholar
Singh, A., Shukla, A., Ram, F., et al. (2017). Trends in inequality in length of life in India: a decomposition analysis by age and causes of death. Genus, 73(1), 5.Google Scholar
Spreen, A., & Kamat, S. (2018). From billionaires to the bottom billion: who’s making education policy for the poor in emerging economies?, in Steiner-Khamsi, G., & Draxler, A. (eds.), The State, Business and Education: Public Private Partnerships Revised. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 106–130.Google Scholar
Sproule-Jones, M. (1996). Crusading for the forgotten: Dr. Peter Bryce, public health, and prairie Native residential schools. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 13, 199–224.Google Scholar
Starfield, B., & Birn, A.-E. (2007). Income redistribution is not enough: income inequality, social welfare programs, and achieving equity in health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61(12),1038–1041.Google Scholar
Stigler-Granados, P., Quintana, P. J., Gersberg, R., et al. (2014). Comparing health outcomes and point-of-use water quality in two rural Indigenous communities of Baja California, Mexico before and after receiving new potable water infrastructure. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 4(4), 672–680.Google Scholar
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (2019). World Military Expenditure Grows to $1.8 Trillion in 2018. April 29 (online). Available at www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2019/world-military-expenditure-grows-18-trillion–2018.Google Scholar
Stubbs, T., Kentikelenis, A., Stuckler, D., et al. (2017). The impact of IMF conditionality on government health expenditure: a cross-national analysis of 16 West African nations. Social Science and Medicine, 174, 220–227.Google Scholar
Taylor, K.-Y. (2016). From #Black Lives Matter to Black Liberation. Chicago: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar
Thrasher, S. W. (2015). Income inequality happens by design: we can’t fix it by tweaking capitalism. The Guardian, December 5. Available at www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/05/income-inequality-policy-capitalism.Google Scholar
Travis, J., Western, B., & Redburn, S. (2014). The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. Washington, DC: National Research Council.Google Scholar
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2015). Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Winnipeg: Truth and Reconciliation Commission.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (2017). Education. (online). Available at www.unicef.org/nigeria/education.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (2018). Diarrhoeal Disease. (online). Available at https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/diarrhoeal-disease/#more–1517.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (2019). Annual Report 2018 (online). Available at www.unicef.org/media/55486/file/UNICEF-annual-report-2018%20revised%201.pdf.Google Scholar
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) & World Health Organization (WHO) (2015). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs (UN-DESA) (2015). State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, 2015, Vol. 2, Indigenous Peoples’ Access to Health Services. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations.Google Scholar
United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs (UN-DESA) (2018). 2018 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects, May 16 (online). Available at www.un.org/development/desa/publications/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.Google Scholar
United Nations Development Program (2014). Human Development Report 2014. Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience. New York: United Nations Development Program.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat (2016). Urbanization and Development: Emerging Futures World Cities Report 2016 (online). Available at https://new.unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/download-manager-files/WCR-2016-WEB.pdf.Google Scholar
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2019). Desperate Journeys: Refugees and migrants arriving in Europe and at Europe’s borders (online). Available at www.unhcr.org/desperatejourneys/.Google Scholar
United States Census Bureau (n.d.). Quick Facts: Mississippi. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce (online). Available at www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/MS/BZA115216.Google Scholar
Verma, K., & Kulshrestha, U. (2018). Feasible mitigation options for air pollution and traffic congestion in metro cities. Journal of Indian Geophysical Union, 22, 212–218.Google Scholar
Villarosa, L. (2018). Why America’s black mothers and babies are in a life-or-death crisis. New York Times Magazine, April 11 (online). Available at www.nytimes.com/2018/04/11/magazine/black-mothers-babies-death-maternal-mortality.html.Google Scholar
Vuillermoz, C., Aouba, A., Grout, L., et al. (2014). Estimating the number of homeless deaths in France, 2008–2010. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 690.Google Scholar
Walmsley, R. (2018). World Prison Population List, 12th ed. London: Institute for Criminal Policy Research.Google Scholar
Walters, K. L., Mohammed, S. A., Evans-Campbell, T., et al. (2011). Bodies don’t just tell stories, they tell histories. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1), 179–189.Google Scholar
WaterAid (2018). Better Toilets, Accurate Information about Periods Crucial to Keeping Girls in School, May 23 (online). Available at www.wateraid.org/au/articles/better-toilets-accurate-information-about-periods-crucial-to-keeping-girls-in-school.Google Scholar
Webster, P. C. (2015). Housing triggers health problems for Canada’s First Nations. Lancet 385(9967):495–496.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) (2012). Unsafe Abortion Incidence and Mortality. (online). Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/75173/WHO_RHR_12.01_eng.pdf;jsessionid=BA2671ABBA1C0891FD5223EC89359E07?sequence=1.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) (2013). Global Status Report on Road Safety 2013: Supporting a Decade of Action. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) (2015). Healthy Diet: Fact Sheet (online). Available at www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs394/en/.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) (2019a). World Health Statistics 2019 (online). Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/324835/9789241565707-eng.pdf?ua=1.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) (2019b). SDG 3: Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Wellbeing for All at All Ages. Sustainable Development Goals (online). Available at www.who.int/sdg/targets/en/.Google Scholar
World Health Organization Commission on Social Determinants of Health (2008). Closing the Gap in a Generation (online). Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43943/9789241563703_eng.pdf;jsessionid=80E4AAFACD619BC0CCA550B9B1FFB62D?sequence=1.Google Scholar
World Bank (2019a). Life Expectancy at Birth, Total (Years) (online). Available at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/sp.dyn.le00.in.Google Scholar
World Bank (2019b). GNI per Capita, Atlas Method (Current US$) (online). Available at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gnp.pcap.cd.Google Scholar
World Bank (2019c). Poverty (online). Available at www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview.Google Scholar
Yashoda, V (2020). COVID-19 comes to Asia’s most densely populated slum (online). Available at https://thediplomat.com/2020/04/covid-19-comes-to-asias-most-densely-populated-slum/.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×