An Overview: Definitions, Epidemiology and Policy Issues

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar

Du Rietz, E, Pettersson, E, Brikell, I, Ghirardi, L, Chen, Q, Hartman, C, et al. Overlap between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and neurodevelopmental, externalising and internalising disorders: separating unique from general psychopathology effects. British Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 218(1): 35–42.Google Scholar

Murray, J, Farrington, DP. Risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency: key findings from longitudinal studies. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2010; 55(10): 633–42.Google Scholar

Lim, L, Chantiluke, K, Cubillo, A, Smith, A, Simmons, A, Mehta, M, et al. Disorder-specific grey matter deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder relative to autism spectrum disorder. Psychological Medicine 2015; 45(5): 965–76.Google Scholar

Horder, J, Petrinovic, MM, Mendez, MA, Bruns, A, Takumi, T, Spooren, W, et al. Glutamate and GABA in autism spectrum disorder: a translational magnetic resonance spectroscopy study in man and rodent models. Translational Psychiatry 2018; 8(1) :1–11.Google Scholar

Kooij, JJS, Bijlenga, D, Salerno, L, Jaeschke, R, Bitter, I, Balazs, J, et al. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. European Psychiatry 2019 ;56: 14–34.Google Scholar

Shi, Y, Wang, M, Mi, D, Lu, T, Wang, B, Dong, H, et al. Mouse and human share conserved transcriptional programs for interneuron development. Science 2021; 374(6573): eabj6641.Google Scholar

Marotta, R, Risoleo, MC, Messina G et al., (2020). The Neurochemistry of Autism. Brain Sciences, 10, 163.Google Scholar

Parenti, I, Rabaneda, LG, Schoen, H, Novarino, G. Neurodevelopmental disorders: from genetics to functional pathways. Trends in Neurosciences 2020; 43(8): 608–21.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lord, C, Charman, T, Havdahl, A, Carbone, P, Anagnostou, E, Boyd, B, et al. The Lancet Commission on the future of care and clinical research in autism. Lancet 2022; 399(10321): 271–334.Google Scholar

Autistica. A review of the research funding landscape in the United Kingdom. 2018. Available at: https://issuu.com/fitcreative.ltd.uk/docs/autistica-autism_research_funding_l/1.Google Scholar

Langdon, PE, Alexander, R, O’Hara, J. Highlights of this issue. British Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 218(1): A3.Google Scholar

Alexander, RT, Langdon, PE, O’Hara, J, Howell, A, Lane, T, Tharian, R, et al. Psychiatry and neurodevelopmental disorders: experts by experience, clinical care and research. British Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 218(1): 1–3.Google Scholar

O’Grady, SM, Hinshaw, SP. Long-term outcomes of females with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: increased risk for self-harm. British Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 218(1): 4–6.Google Scholar

Murphy, D, Glaser, K, Hayward, H, Eklund, H, Cadman, T, Findon, J, et al. Crossing the divide: a longitudinal study of effective treatments for people with autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Programme Grants Appl Res 2018; 6(2).Google Scholar

Ryland, H, Davies, L, Kenny-Herbert, J, Kingham, M & Deshpande, M. (2021). Advancing research in Forensic Mental Health Services in England. Medicine, Science & the Law, 1–5.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Hayes, S, Søndenaa, E, Chester, V, Morrissey, C, et al. Defendants with intellectual disability and autism spectrum conditions: the perspective of clinicians working across three jurisdictions. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 2021; 29(5): 698–717.Google Scholar

Brooker, C, Coid, J. Mental health services are failing the criminal justice system. BMJ 2022: 376.Google Scholar

Criminal Justice Inspectorates. Neurodiversity in the criminal justice system. Available at: www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk.Google Scholar

HM Government. National strategy for autistic children, young people and adults: 2021 to 2026, policy paper. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-strategy-for-autistic-children-young-people-and-adults-2021-to-2026.Google Scholar

NHS England. Meeting the healthcare needs of adults with a learning disability and autistic adults in prison. Available at: www.england.nhs.uk/publication/meeting-the-healthcare-needs-of-adults-with-a-learning-disability-and-autistic-adults-in-prison/.Google Scholar

Sentencing Council. Sentencing offenders with mental disorders, developmental disorders, or neurological impairments. 2020. Available at: www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/overarching-guides/magistrates-court/item/sentencing-offenders-with-mental-disorders-developmental-disorders-or-neurological-impairments/.Google Scholar

Taylor, PJ, Eastman, N, Latham, R, Holloway, J. Sentencing offenders with mental disorders, developmental disorders or neurological impairments: what does the new Sentencing Council Guideline mean for psychiatrists? British Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 218(6): 299–301.Google Scholar

R v. M’Naghten [1843] 8 ER 718; [1843] 10 Cl & F 200.Google Scholar

Baroff, GS, Gunn, M, Hayes, S. Legal issues. In Lindsay, WR, Taylor, JL, Sturmey, P, eds.,Offenders with Developmental Disabilities. Wiley, 2004: 37–66.Google Scholar

Hallett, N. Psychiatric evidence in diminished responsibility. Journal of Criminal Law 2018; 82(6): 442–56.Google Scholar

O’Sullivan, OP. Autism spectrum disorder and criminal responsibility: historical perspectives, clinical challenges and broader considerations within the criminal justice system. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 2017; 35(4): 333–9.Google Scholar

Hallett, N. To what extent should expert psychiatric witnesses comment on criminal culpability? Medicine, Science and the Law 2020; 60(1): 67–74.Google Scholar

Moore, MS. Prima facie moral culpability. Boston University Law Review 1996; 76: 319.Google Scholar

McChesney, D, Doucet, M. Culpable ignorance and mental disorders. Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy 2018; 14: 227.Google Scholar

Allely, CS. Autism spectrum disorders in the criminal justice system: police interviewing, the courtroom and the prison environment. In Recent Advances in Autism. SM Group Open Access eBooks, 2016: 1–13.Google Scholar

Reed, GM, First, MB, Kogan, CS, Hyman, SE, Gureje, O, Gaebel, W, et al. Innovations and changes in the ICD-11 classification of mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders. World Psychiatry 2019; 18(1): 3–19.Google Scholar

Thapar, A, Cooper, M, Ruttern, M. Neurodevelopmental disorders. Lancet Psychiatry 2017; 4: 339–46.Google Scholar

Kirov, G, Rees, E, Walters, J. What a psychiatrist needs to know about copy number variants. BJPsych Advances 2015; 21: 157–63.Google Scholar

Thygesen, JH, Wolfe, K, McQuillin, A, Viñas-Jornet, M, Baena, N, Brison, N, et al. Neurodevelopmental risk copy number variants in adults with intellectual disability and comorbid psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 2018; 212: 287–94.Google Scholar

Cooper, SA, McLean, G, Guthrie, B, McConnachie, A, Mercer, S, Sullivan, F, et al. Multiple physical and mental health comorbidity in adults with intellectual disabilities: population-based cross-sectional analysis. BMC Family Practice 2015; 16: 110.Google Scholar

Schaefer, GB, Mendelsohn, NJ. Clinical genetics aspects of autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 2016; 17: 180.Google Scholar

Faraone, SV, Larsson, H. Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 2019; 24: 562–75.Google Scholar

Pettersson, E, Larsson, H, Lichtenstein, P. Common psychiatric disorders share the same genetic origin: a multivariate sibling study of the Swedish population. Molelcular Psychiatry 2016; 21: 717–21.Google Scholar

Mukherjee, RAS, Cook, PA, Norgate, SH, Price, AD. Neurodevelopmental outcomes in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) with and without exposure to neglect: clinical cohort data from a national FASD diagnostic clinic. Alcohol 2019; 76: 23–28.Google Scholar

Sonuga-Barke, EJS, Kennedy, M, Kumsta, R, Knights, N, Golm, D, Rutter, M, et al. Child-to-adult neurodevelopmental and mental health trajectories after early life deprivation: the young adult follow-up of the longitudinal English and Romanian adoptees study. Lancet 2017; 389: 1539–48.Google Scholar

Trahan, LH, Stuebing, KK, Hiscock, MK, Fletcher, JM. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 2014; 140: 1332–60.Google Scholar

Flannigan, K, Pei, J, Stewart, M, Johnson, A. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and the criminal justice system: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2017; 57: 42–52.Google Scholar

Heyer, DB, Meredith, RM. Environmental toxicology: sensitive periods of development and neurodevelopmental disorders. Neurotoxicology 2017; 58: 23–41.Google Scholar

Douds, F, Bantwal, A. The ‘forensicisation’ of challenging behaviour: the perils of people with learning disabilities and severe challenging behaviours being viewed as ‘forensic’ patients. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2011; 2(3): 110.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists and British Psychological Society and Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists. Challenging behaviour: a unified approach (CR144). 2007. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/docs/default-source/improving-care/better-mh-policy/college-reports/college-report-cr144.pdf?sfvrsn=73e437e8_2.Google Scholar

Blackburn, R. The Psychology of Criminal Conduct. John Wiley & Sons, 1993.Google Scholar

Chester, V, Alexander, RT, Lindsay, WR. Women with intellectual disabilities and forensic involvement. In The Wiley Handbook on Offenders with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. John Wiley & Sons, 2018: 328–45.Google Scholar

Alexander, RT, Hiremath, A, Chester, V, Green, FN, Gunaratna, IJ, Hoare, S. Evaluation of treatment outcomes from a medium secure unit for people with intellectual disability. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities 2011; 5(1): 22–32.Google Scholar

Chester, V, Wells, H, Lovell, M, Melvin, C, Tromans, SJ. The prevention of offending behaviour by people with intellectual disabilities: a case for specialist childhood and adolescent early intervention. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities 2019; 13(5): 216–27.Google Scholar

Plant, A, McDermott, E, Chester, V, Alexander, RT. Substance misuse among offenders in a forensic intellectual disability service. Journal of Learning Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2011; 2(3): 127.Google Scholar

Rai, R, Tromans, S, Kapugama, C, Alexander, RT, Chester, V, Gunaratna, I, et al. A phenomenological approach to diagnosing psychosis in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability: a case series. Advances in Autism 2018; 4(2): 39–48.Google Scholar

Winter, N, Holland, AJ, Collins, S. Factors predisposing to suspected offending by adults with self-reported learning disabilities. Psychological Medicine 1997; 27(3): 595–607.Google Scholar

Chester, V, Painter, G, Ryan, L, Popple, J, Chikodzi, K, Alexander, RT. Traumatic brain injury in a forensic intellectual disability population. Psychology, Crime and Law 2018; 24(4): 400–13.Google Scholar

Gray, NS, Fitzgerald, S, Taylor, J, MacCulloch, MJ, Snowden, RJ. Predicting future reconviction in offenders with intellectual disabilities: the predictive efficacy of VRAG, PCL-SV, and the HCR-20. Psychological Assessment 2007; 19(4): 474–9.Google Scholar

Fitzgerald, S, Gray, NS, Alexander, RT, Bagshaw, R, Chesterman, P, Huckle, P, et al. Predicting institutional violence in offenders with intellectual disabilities: the predictive efficacy of the VRAG and the HCR-20. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2013; 26(5): 384–93.Google Scholar

Holland, T, Clare, ICH, Mukhopadhyay, T. Prevalence of ‘criminal offending’ by men and women with intellectual disability and the characteristics of ‘offenders’: implications for research and service development. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2002; 46(s1): 6–20.Google Scholar

Lyall, R, Kelly, M. Specialist psychiatric beds for people with learning disability. Psychiatric Bulletin 2007; 31(8): 297–300.Google Scholar

Devapriam, J, Alexander, RT. Tiered model of learning disability forensic service provision. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2012; 3(4): 175–85.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists. Forensic care pathways for adults with intellectual disability involved with the criminal justice. 2014. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/docs/default-source/members/faculties/forensic-psychiatry/forensic-fr-id-04.pdf?sfvrsn=2fdf0def_2.Google Scholar

Talbot, J. No one knows: offenders with learning disabilities and learning difficulties. International Journal of Prisoner Health 2009; 5(3): 141–52.Google Scholar

Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1985. Available at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/60/contents.Google Scholar

Home Office. CODE C Revised: Code of Practice for the detention, treatment and questioning of persons by police officers. 2017. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/903473/pace-code-c-2019.pdf.Google Scholar

Clare, ICH, Gudjonsson, GH. The vulnerability of suspects with intellectual disabilities during police interviews: a review and experimental study of decision-making. Mental Handicap Research 1995; 8(2): 110–28.Google Scholar

O’Mahony, BM. The emerging role of the registered intermediary with the vulnerable witness and offender: facilitating communication with the police and members of the judiciary. British Journal of Learning Disabilities 2010; 38(3): 232–7.CrossRef Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH. The relationship of intelligence and memory to interrogative suggestibility: the importance of range effects. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 1988; 27(2): 185–7.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH, Clare, ICH. The relationship between confabulation and intellectual ability, memory, interrogative suggestibility and acquiescence. Personality and Individual Differences 1995; 19(3): 333–8.Google Scholar

Boer, H, Alexander, R, Devapriam, J, Torales, J, Ng, R, Castaldelli-Maia, J, et al. Prisoner mental health care for people with intellectual disability. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health 2016; 9(4): 442–6.Google Scholar

Mckinnon, I, Thorp, J, Grubin, D. Improving the detection of detainees with suspected intellectual disability in police custody. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities 2015; 9(4): 174–85.Google Scholar

Leggett, J, Goodman, W, Dinani, S. People with learning disabilities’ experiences of being interviewed by the police. British Journal of Learning Disabilities 2007; 35(3): 168–73.Google Scholar

Department of Health. The Bradley Report: Lord Bradley’s review of people with mental health problems or learning disabilities in the criminal justice system. 2009. Available at: https://lx.iriss.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/The%20Bradley%20report.pdf.Google Scholar

Chester, V. People with intellectual and developmental disorders in the United Kingdom criminal justice system. East Asian Archives of Psychiatry 2018; 28(4): 150–8.Google Scholar

Taylor, ILA. Fitness to plead and stand trial: the impact of mild intellectual disability. Doctoral thesis, University College London, 2011.Google Scholar

Rogers, TP, Blackwood, NJ, Farnham, F, Pickup, GJ, Watts, MJ. Fitness to plead and competence to stand trial: a systematic review of the constructs and their application. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2008; 19: 576–96.Google Scholar

Baroff, GS, Gunn, M, Hayes, S. Legal issues. In Lindsay, WR, Taylor, JL, Sturmey, P, eds., Offenders with Developmental Disabilities. John Wiley & Sons, 2004: 37–66.Google Scholar

Mental Health Act 1983. Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1983/20/contents.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Hayes, S, Søndenaa, E, Chester, V, Morrissey, C, et al. Defendants with intellectual disability and autism spectrum conditions: the perspective of clinicians working across three jurisdictions. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 2021; 29(5): 698–717.Google Scholar

Criminal Justice Act 2003. Available at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/44/contents.Google Scholar

Archer, N, Hurley, EA. A justice system failing the autistic community. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2013; 4(1): 53–9.Google Scholar

Nacro. Liaison and diversion for mentally disordered offenders. 2015. Available at: www.nacro.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Liaison-and-diversion-for-mentally-disordered-offenders.pdf.Google Scholar

Department of Health & Social Care. Consultation outcome: reforming the Mental Health Act. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/consultations/reforming-the-mental-health-act.Google Scholar

Benton, C, Roy, A. The first three years of a community forensic service for people with a learning disability. British Journal of Forensic Practice 2008; 10(2): 4–12.Google Scholar

Dinani, S, Goodman, W, Swift, C, Treasure, T. Providing forensic community services for people with learning disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2010 Jan 1; 1(1): 58–63.Google Scholar

Lindsay, WR, Steele, L, Smith, AHW, Quinn, K, Allan, R. A community forensic intellectual disability service: twelve year follow up of referrals, analysis of referral patterns and assessment of harm reduction. Legal and Criminological Psychology 2006; 11(1): 113–30.Google Scholar

Department of Health Transforming Care: A national response to Winterbourne View Hospital Department of Health Review: Final Report. Department of Health, 2012.Google Scholar

Morrissey, C, Langdon, PE, Geach, N, Chester, V, Ferriter, M, Lindsay, WR, et al. A systematic review and synthesis of outcome domains for use within forensic services for people with intellectual disabilities. BJPsych Open 2017 Jan; 3(1): 41–56.Google Scholar

Alexander, RT, Crouch, K, Halstead, S, Piachaud, J. Long-term outcome from a medium secure service for people with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2006; 50(4): 305–15.Google Scholar

Chester, V, Tromans, S, Kapugama, C, Alexander, RT, Völlm, B. Long-stay patients with and without intellectual disability in forensic psychiatric settings: comparison of characteristics and needs. BJPsych Open 2018; 4(04): 226–34.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar

Polanczyk, G, de Lima, MS, Horta, BL, Biederman, J, Rohde, LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007; 164(6): 942–8.Google Scholar

Simon, V, Czobor, P, Bálint, S, Mészáros, Á, Bitter, I. Prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry 2009; 194(3): 204–11.Google Scholar

Young, S, Moss, D, Sedgwick, O, Fridman, M, Hodgkins, P. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in incarcerated populations. Psychological Medicine 2015; 45(2): 247–58.Google Scholar

Baggio, S, Fructuoso, A, Guimaraes, M, Fois, E, Golay, D, Heller, P, et al. Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in detention settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2018; 9: 331.Google Scholar

Beaudry, G, Yu, R, Långström, N, Fazel, S. An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis: mental disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and correctional facilities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2021; 60(1): 46–60.Google Scholar

Young, S, Gudjonsson, G, Chitsabesan, P, Colley, B, Farrag, E, Forrester, A, et al. Identification and treatment of offenders with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the prison population: a practical approach based upon expert consensus. BMC Psychiatry 2018; 18(1): 281–9.Google Scholar

Turner, D, Wolf, AJ, Barra, S, Müller, M, Gregório Hertz, P, Huss, M, et al. The association between adverse childhood experiences and mental health problems in young offenders. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2021; 30(8): 1195–207.Google Scholar

Willcutt, EG. The Prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics 2012; 9(3): 490–9.Google Scholar

Biederman, J, Faraone, SV, Monuteaux, MC, Bober, M, Cadogen, E. Gender effects on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, revisited. Biological Psychiatry 2004; 55(7): 692–700.Google Scholar

Corbisiero, S, Hartmann-Schorro, R, Riecher-Rössler, A, Stieglitz, R. Screening for adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a psychiatric outpatient population with specific focus on sex differences. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2017; 8(115): 115.Google Scholar

Cortese, S, Faraone, SV, Bernardi, S, Wang, S, Blanco, C. Gender differences in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2016; 77(4): 421.Google Scholar

de Zwaan, M, Gruss, B, Müller, A, Graap, H, Martin, A, Glaesmer, H, et al. The estimated prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in a German community sample. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2012; 262(1): 79–86.Google Scholar

Moffitt, TE, Houts, R, Asherson, P, Belsky, DW, Corcoran, DL, Hammerle, M, et al. Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry 2015; 172(10): 967–77.Google Scholar

Williamson, D, Johnston, C. Gender differences in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a narrative review. Clinical Psychology Review 2015; 40: 15–27.Google Scholar

Bramham, J, Murphy, DG, Xenitidis, K, Asherson, P, Hopkin, G, Young, S. Adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an investigation of age-related differences in behavioural symptoms, neuropsychological function and co-morbidity. Psychological Medicine 2012; 42(10): 2225–34.Google Scholar

Mundt, AP, Alvarado, R, Fritsch, R, Poblete, C, Villagra, C, Kastner, S, et al. Prevalence rates of mental disorders in Chilean prisons. PLOS One 2013; 8(7): e69109.Google Scholar

Westmoreland, P, Gunter, T, Loveless, P, Allen, J, Sieleni, B, Black, DW. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in men and women newly committed to prison: clinical characteristics, psychiatric comorbidity, and quality of life. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 2010; 54(3): 361–77.Google Scholar

Chung, W, Jiang, SF, Paksarian, D, Nikolaidis, A, Castellanos, FX, Merikangas, KR, et al. Trends in the prevalence and incidence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adults and children of different racial and ethnic groups. JAMA Network Open 2019; 2(11): e1914344.Google Scholar

Coker, TR, Elliott, MN, Toomey, SL, Schwebel, DC, Cuccaro, P, Tortolero Emery, S, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis and treatment.Pediatrics 2016; 138(3): e20160407.Google Scholar

Morgan, PL, Staff, J, Hillemeier, MM, Farkas, G, Maczuga, S. Racial and ethnic disparities in ADHD diagnosis from kindergarten to eighth grade. Pediatrics 2013; 132(1): 85.Google Scholar

Polanczyk, GV, Willcutt, EG, Salum, GA, Kieling, C, Rohde, LA. ADHD prevalence estimates across three decades: an updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology 2014; 43(2): 434–42.Google Scholar

Mohr-Jensen, C, Steinhausen, H. A meta-analysis and systematic review of the risks associated with childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder on long-term outcome of arrests, convictions, and incarcerations. Clinical Psychology Review 2016; 48: 32–42.Google Scholar

Mohr-Jensen, C, Müller Bisgaard, C, Boldsen, SK, Steinhausen, H. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood and adolescence and the risk of crime in young adulthood in a Danish nationwide study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2019; 58(4): 443–52.Google Scholar

Retz, W, Ginsberg, Y, Turner, D, Barra, S, Retz-Junginger, P, Larsson, H, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), antisociality and delinquent behavior over the lifespan. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2020; 120: 236–48.Google Scholar

Erskine, HE, Norman, RE, Ferrari, AJ, Chan, GCK, Copeland, WE, Whiteford, HA, et al. Long-term outcomes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2016; 55(10): 841–50.Google Scholar

De Sanctis, VA, Newcorn, JH, Halperin, JM. A prospective look at substance use and criminal behavior in urban ADHD youth: what is the role of maltreatment history on outcome? Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders 2014; 6(2): 79–86.Google Scholar

Rösler, M, Retz, W, Retz-Junginger, P, Hengesch, G, Schneider, M, Supprian, T, et al. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders in young male prison inmates. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2004; 254(6): 365–71.Google Scholar

Silva, D, Colvin, L, Glauert, R, Bower, C. Contact with the juvenile justice system in children treated with stimulant medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a population study. Lancet Psychiatry 2014; 1(4): 278–85.Google Scholar

Fletcher, J, Wolfe, B. Long-term consequences of childhood ADHD on criminal activities. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics 2009; 12(3): 119–38.Google Scholar

Philipp-Wiegmann, F, Rösler, M, Clasen, O, Zinnow, T, Retz-Junginger, P, Retz, W. ADHD modulates the course of delinquency: a 15-year follow-up study of young incarcerated man. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2018; 268(4): 391–9.Google Scholar

Grieger, L, Hosser, D. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder does not predict criminal recidivism in young adult offenders: results from a prospective study. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2012; 35(1): 27–34.Google Scholar

Young, S, Goodwin, EJ, Sedgwick, O, Gudjonsson, GH. The effectiveness of police custody assessments in identifying suspects with intellectual disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. BMC Medicine 2013; 11(1): 248.Google Scholar

González, RA, Gudjonsson, GH, Wells, J, Young, S. The role of emotional distress and ADHD on institutional behavioral disturbance and recidivism among offenders. Journal of Attention Disorders 2016; 20(4): 368–78.Google Scholar

Young, S, Gudjonsson, GH, Wells, J, Asherson, P, Theobald, D, Oliver, B, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and critical incidents in a Scottish prison population. Personality and Individual Differences 2009; 46(3): 265–9.Google Scholar

Young, S, Misch, P, Collins, P, Gudjonsson, G. Predictors of institutional behavioural disturbance and offending in the community among young offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2011; 22(1): 72–86.Google Scholar

Young, S, Gudjonsson, G, Ball, S, Lam, J. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in personality disordered offenders and the association with disruptive behavioural problems. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2003; 14: 491–505.Google Scholar

Young, S, Sedgwick, O, Fridman, M, Gudjonsson, G, Hodgkins, P, Lantigua, M, et al. Co-morbid psychiatric disorders among incarcerated ADHD populations: a meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 2015; 45(12): 2499–510.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Underwood, L, Forrester, A, Hayward, H, Sabet, J, et al. Characteristics of prisoners with neurodevelopmental disorders and difficulties. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2016; 60(3): 201–6.Google Scholar

Young, S, González, RA, Fridman, M, Hodgkins, P, Kim, K, Gudjonsson, GH. Health-related quality of life in prisoners with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and head injury. BMC Psychiatry 2018; 18(1): 209.Google Scholar

Young, S, González, RA, Mullens, H, Mutch, L, Malet-Lambert, I, Gudjonsson, GH. Neurodevelopmental disorders in prison inmates: comorbidity and combined associations with psychiatric symptoms and behavioural disturbance. Psychiatry Research 2018; 261: 109–15.Google Scholar

Hughes, N, Williams, W, Chitsabesan, P, Walesby, R, Mounce, L. Nobody made the connection: neurodisability in the youth justice system. 2012. Available at: http://psychology.exeter.ac.uk/documents/Nobody_made_the_connection_Neurodevelopment%20Report_OCC_October2012.pdf.Google Scholar

Pérez-Pedrogo, C, Martínez-Taboas, A, Gonzélez, RA, Caraballo, JN, Albizu-García, CE. Sex differences in traumatic events and psychiatric morbidity associated to probable posttraumatic stress disorder among Latino prisoners. Psychiatry Research 2018; 265: 208–14.Google Scholar

Mordre, M, Groholt, B, Kjelsberg, E, Sandstad, B, Myhre, AM. The impact of ADHD and conduct disorder in childhood on adult delinquency: A 30 years follow-up study using official crime records. BMC Psychiatry 2011; 11(1): 57.Google Scholar

Satterfield, JH, Faller, KJ, Crinella, FM, Schell, AM, Swanson, JM, Homer, LD. A 30-year prospective follow-up study of hyperactive boys with conduct problems: adult criminality. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2007; 46(5): 601–10.Google Scholar

Lundström, S, Forsman, M, Larsson, H, Kerekes, N, Serlachius, E, Långström, N, et al. Childhood neurodevelopmental disorders and violent criminality: a sibling control study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2014; 44(11): 2707–16.Google Scholar

Gunter, TD, Arndt, S, Riggins-Caspers, K, Wenman, G, Cadoret, RJ. Adult outcomes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder: are the risks independent or additive? Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 2006; 18(4): 233–7.Google Scholar

Sibley, MH, Pelham, WE, Molina, BSG, Gnagy, EM, Waschbusch, DA, Biswas, A, et al. The delinquency outcomes of boys with ADHD with and without comorbidity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2011; 39(1): 21–32.Google Scholar

Pratt, TC, Cullen, FT, Blevins, KR, Daigle, L, Unnever, JD. The relationship of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to crime and delinquency: a meta-analysis. International Journal of Police Science and Management 2002; 4(4): 344–60.Google Scholar

Moffitt, TE. Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review 1993; 100(4): 674–701.Google Scholar

Barkley, RA, Fischer, M, Smallish, L, Fletcher, K. Young adult follow-up of hyperactive children: antisocial activities and drug use. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2004; 45(2): 195–211.Google Scholar

Harpin, V, Young, S. The challenge of ADHD and youth offending. Cutting Edge Psychiatry in Practice 2012; 2: 138–43.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH, Sigurdsson, JF, Sigfusdottir, ID, Asgeirsdottir, BB, González, RA, Young, S. A national epidemiological study investigating risk factors for police interrogation and false confession among juveniles and young persons. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2016; 51(3): 359–67.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH. The Psychology of False Confessions: Forty Years of Science and Practice. John Wiley & Sons, 2018.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, MR, Hirschi, T. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford University Press, 1990.Google Scholar

Engelhardt, PE, Nobes, G, Pischedda, S. The relationship between adult symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and criminogenic cognitions. Brain Sciences 2019; 9(6): 128. Doi: 10.3390/brainsci9060128.Google Scholar

Walters, G. The Criminal Lifestyle: Patterns of Serious Criminal Conduct. SAGE Publications, 1990.Google Scholar

Retz, W, Rösler, M. The relation of ADHD and violent aggression: what can we learn from epidemiological and genetic studies? International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2009; 32(4): 235–43.Google Scholar

Román-Ithier, JC, González, RA, Vélez-Pastrana, MC, González-Tejera, GM, Albizu-García, CE. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms, type of offending and recidivism in a prison population: the role of substance dependence. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 2017; 27(5): 443–456.Google Scholar

Lane, CJ, Chong, MD. A hard pill to swallow: the need to identify and treat ADHD to reduce sufferers’ potential involvement in the criminal justice system. James Cook University Law Review 2019; 25: 119–36.Google Scholar

Daley, D, Jacobsen, RH, Lange, AM, Sørensen, A, Walldorf, J. The economic burden of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a sibling comparison cost analysis. European Psychiatry 2019; 61: 41–8.Google Scholar

Deloitte Access Economics. The social and economic costs of ADHD in Australia: report prepared for the Australian ADHD Professionals Association. 2019. Available at: www2.deloitte.com/au/en/pages/economics/articles/social-economic-costs-adhd-Australia.html.Google Scholar

Young, S, González, RA, Fridman, M, Hodgkins, P, Kim, K, Gudjonsson, GH. The economic consequences of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in the Scottish prison system. BMC Psychiatry 2018; 18(1): 210.Google Scholar

Young, S, Cocallis, KM. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the prison system. Current Psychiatry Reports 2019; 21(6): 41–3.Google Scholar

Freriks, RD, Mierau, JO, van der Schans, J, Groenman, AP, Hoekstra, PJ, Postma, MJ, et al. Cost-effectiveness of treatments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a continuous-time Markov modelling approach. MDM Policy and Practice 2019; 4(2): 2381468319867629.Google Scholar

Ginsberg, Y, Lindefors, N. Methylphenidate treatment of adult male prison inmates with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial with open-label extension. British Journal of Psychiatry 2012; 200(1): 68–73.Google Scholar

Lichtenstein, P, Halldner, L, Zetterqvist, J, Sjölander, A, Serlachius, E, Fazel, S, et al. Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. New England Journal of Medicine 2012; 367(21): 2006–14.Google Scholar

Chang, Z, Lichtenstein, P, Långström, N, Larsson, H, Fazel, S. Association between prescription of major psychotropic medications and violent reoffending after prison release. JAMA 2016; 316(17): 1798–807.Google Scholar

Konstenius, M, Jayaram-Lindström, N, Guterstam, J, Beck, O, Philips, B, Franck, J. Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and drug relapse in criminal offenders with substance dependence: a 24-week randomized placebo-controlled trial. Addiction 2014; 109(3): 440–9.Google Scholar

Burns, KA. Commentary: the top ten reasons to limit prescription of controlled substances in prisons. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 2009; 37(1): 50.Google Scholar

Appelbaum, KL. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in prison: a treatment protocol. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 2009; 37(1): 45–9.Google Scholar

Hall, RC, Myers, WC. Challenges and limitations to treating ADHD in incarcerated populations. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 2016; 44(2): 164–70.Google Scholar

Pilkinton, PD, Pilkinton, JC. Prescribing in prison: minimizing psychotropic drug diversion in correctional practice. Journal of Correctional Health Care 2014; 20(2): 95–104.Google Scholar

Shaw, M, Hodgkins, P, Caci, H, Young, S, Kahle, J, Woods, AG, et al. A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC Medicine 2012; 10: 99.Google Scholar

Arnold, LE, Hodgkins, P, Caci, H, Kahle, J, Young, S. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLOS One 2015; 10(2): e0116407.Google Scholar

Emilsson, B, Gudjonsson, G, Sigurdsson, JF, Baldursson, G, Einarsson, E, Olafsdottir, H, et al. Cognitive behaviour therapy in medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2011; 11(1): 116.Google Scholar

Young, S, Emilsson, B, Sigurdsson, JF, Khondoker, M, Philipp-Wiegmann, F, Baldursson, G, et al. A randomized controlled trial reporting functional outcomes of cognitive–behavioural therapy in medication-treated adults with ADHD and comorbid psychopathology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2017; 267(3): 267–76.Google Scholar

Ramboll and The National Board of Social Services. Better help for young people and adults with ADHD and corresponding difficulties: final evaluation report. 2020. Available at: www.psychology-services.uk.com/danish-report-on-r-r2-adhd.htm.Google Scholar

Wing, L. Asperger’s syndrome: management requires diagnosis. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry 1997: 2(8): 253–7.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar

Brugha, TS, McManus, S, Bankart, J, Scott, F, Purdon, S, Smith, J, Meltzer, H. Epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders in adults in the community in England. Archives of General Psychiatry 2011; 68(5): 459–65.Google Scholar

Wachtel, L, Shorter, E. Autism plus psychosis: A ‘one-two punch’ risk for tragic violence? Medical Hypotheses 2013; 81(3): 404–9.Google Scholar

Rogers, J, Viding, E, Blair, J, Frith, U, Happé, F. Autism spectrum disorder and psychopathy: shared cognitive underpinnings or double hit? Psychological Medicine 2006; 36: 1789–98.Google Scholar

King, C, Murphy, G. A systematic review of people with autism spectrum disorder and the criminal justice system. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2014); 44(11): 2717–33.Google Scholar

Allen, D, Evans, C, Hider, A, Hawkins, S, Peckett, H, Morgan, H. Offending behaviour in adults with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2008; 38(4): 748–58.Google Scholar

Rava, J, Shattuck, P, Rast, J, Roux, A. The prevalence and correlates of involvement in the criminal justice system among youth on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2017; 47(2): 340–6.Google Scholar

Baird, G, Simonoff, S, Pickles, A, Chandler, S, Loucas, T, Meldrum, D, Charman, T. Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the special needs and autism project (SNAP). Lancet 2006; 368(9531): 210–15.Google Scholar

Maenner, M, Shaw, K, Baio, J, Washington, A. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years: ADDM network, 11 sites, United States. Morbidly and Mortality Weekly Report 2016; 69(4): 1–12.Google Scholar

Underwood, L, McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Forrester, A, Mills, R, Murphy, D. Autism spectrum disorder among prisoners. Advances in Autism 2016; 2(3): 106–17.Google Scholar

Underwood, L, Forrester, A, Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J. Prisoners with neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2013; 4(1/2): 17–23.Google Scholar

Fazio, RL, Pietz, CA, Denney, RL. An estimate of the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in an incarcerated population. Open Access Journal of Forensic Psychology 2012; 4: 69–80.Google Scholar

Bates, A. The prevalence of autistic spectrum conditions in a community offender sample. Advances in Autism 2016; 2(4): 191–200.Google Scholar

Scragg, P, Shah, A. Prevalence of Asperger’s syndrome in a secure hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry 1994; 165: 679–82.Google Scholar

Hare, D, Gould, J, Mill, R, Wing, L. A preliminary study of individuals with autistic spectrum disorders in three special hospitals in England. National Autistic Society. 1999. Available at: www.aspires-relationships.com/3hospitals.pdf.Google Scholar

Murphy, D, Bush, EL, Puzzo, I. Incompatibilities and seclusions among individuals with an autism spectrum disorder detained in high secure psychiatric care. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2017; 8(4): 188–200.Google Scholar

Myers, F. On the borderline? People with learning disabilities and or autistic spectrum disorders in secure, forensic and other specialist settings. 2004. Available at: http://docs.scie-socialcareonline.org.uk/fulltext/asdsecure.pdf.Google Scholar

Kelbrick, M, Radley, J. Forensic rehabilitation in Asperger syndrome: a case report. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2013; 4(1–2): https://doi.org/10.1108/jidob.2013.55404aaa.001.Google Scholar

Benbouriche, M, Nolet, K, Trottier, D, Renaud, P. Virtual reality applications in forensic psychiatry. In Proceedings of the Virtual Reality International Conference, Laval Virtual (VRIC’ 14). April 9–11, 2014, Laval, France.Google Scholar

Lyons, A. Examining media representations: benefits for health psychology. Journal of Health Psychology 2000; 5: 349–58.Google Scholar

Philo, G. Changing media representations of mental health. Psychiatric Bulletin Royal College Psychiatry 1997; 21: 171–2.Google Scholar

Huw, J, Jones, R. Missing voices: representations of autism in British newspapers, 1999–2008. British Journal of Learning Disabilities 2010; 39(2): 98–104.Google Scholar

Pesonen, H, Itkonen, T, Saha, M, Nordahl-Hansen, A. Framing autism in newspaper media: an example from Finland. Advances in Autism 2020; DOI 10.1108/AIA-01-2020-0003.Google Scholar

Berryessa, C. Judicial perceptions of media portrayals of offenders with high functioning autistic spectrum disorders. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology 2014; 3: 45–60.Google Scholar

Brewer, N, Zoanetti, J, Young, R. The influence of media suggestions about links between criminality and autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2017; 21(1): 117–21.Google Scholar

McKinnon, G. Theresa May saved my life: now she’s the only hope for the Human Rights Act. The Guardian 2019, 15 November.Google Scholar

BBC News. Lauri Love case: hacking suspect wins extradition appeal. Available at: www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-42946540.Google Scholar

BBC News. Jonty Bravery: Tate Modern balcony teen ‘smiled’ after attack. Available at: www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-53177998.Google Scholar

Autistica. Media Communications Guide. Available at: www.autistica.org.uk/about-us/media-communications-guide.Google Scholar

National Autistic Society. How to talk and write about autism. Available at: www.autism.org.uk/what-we-do/help-and-support/how-to-talk-about-autism Google Scholar

Autism Act 2009. Available at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2009/15/contents.Google Scholar

Think Autism: fulfilling and rewarding lives. The strategy for adults with autism in England: an update. (2014). Available at: Assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/299866/Autism_Strategy.pdf.Google Scholar

Department of Health and Social Care. Adult autism strategy: supporting its use. 2015. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/adult-autism-strategy-statutory-guidance.Google Scholar

Department of Health and Social Care. ‘Right to be heard’: the government’s response to the consultation on learning disability and autism training for health and care staff. 2019. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/844356/autism-and-learning-disability-training-for-staff-consultation-response.pdf.Google Scholar

NHS England. Transforming care. Model service specifications supporting implementation of the service model. 2017. Available at: www.england.hns.uk / wp-content/uploads/2017/model-service-spec-2017.Google Scholar

Equality Act 2010. Available at: www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15.Google Scholar

Ministry of Justice. A smarter approach to sentencing. 2020. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/918187/a-smarter-approach-to-sentencing.pdf.Google Scholar

Sentencing Council. Sentencing offenders with mental disorders, developmental disorders or neurological impairments. 2020. Available at: www.sentencingcouncil.org.uk/overarching-guides/magistrates-court/item/sentencing-offenders-with-mental-disorders-developmental-disorders-or-neurological-impairments/.Google Scholar

Cutler, E. (2013), Autism and child pornography: a toxic combination. Available at: http://sexoffender-statistics.blogspot.com/2013/08/autism-and-child-pornography-toxic.html.Google Scholar

Woodbury-Smith, MR, Clare, IC, Holland, AJ, Kearns, A, Staufenberg, E, Watson, P. A case–control study of offenders with high functioning autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2005; 16(4): 747–63.Google Scholar

Uljarevic, M, Hamilton, A. Recognition of emotions in autism: a formal meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2013; 43(7): 1517–26.Google Scholar

Mahoney, M. Asperger’s syndrome and the criminal law: the special case of child pornography. 2009. Available at: www.harringtonmahoney.com/content/Publications/AspergersSyndromeandtheCriminalLawv26.pdf.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Dubin, L. The contributory role of autism symptomology in child pornography offending: why there is an urgent need for empirical research in this area. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2018; 9(4), 129–52.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Kennedy, S, Warren, I. A legal analysis of Australian criminal cases involving defendants with autism spectrum disorder charged with online sexual offending. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2019; 66: 101456.Google Scholar

Allely, CS. Case report: autism spectrum disorder symptomology and child pornography. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2020; 11(3): 171–89.Google Scholar

Mesibov, G, Sreckovic, M. Child and juvenile pornography and autism spectrum disorder. In Dubin, LA, Horowitz, E, eds., Caught in the Web of the Criminal Justice System: Autism, Developmental Disabilities, and Sex Offenses. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2017, chapter 2.Google Scholar

Hingsburger, D, Griffiths, D, Quinsey, V. Detecting counterfeit deviance: differentiating sexual deviance from sexual inappropriateness. The Habilitative Mental Healthcare Newsletter 1991; 10(9): 51–4.Google Scholar

Sharp, J. Saving Gary McKinnon: A Mother’s Story. Biteback Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar

Ledingham, R, Mills, R. A preliminary study of autism and cybercrime in the context of international law enforcement. Advances in Autism 2015; 1(1): 2–11.Google Scholar

Seigfried-Spellar, K, O’Quinn, C, Treadway, K. Assessing the relationship between autistic traits and cyderdeviancy in a sample of college students. Behaviour & Information Technology 2014; 34(5): 533–42.Google Scholar

Payne, KL, Russell, A, Mills, R, Maras, K, Rai, D, Brosnan, M. Is there a relationship between cyber-dependent crime, autistic-like traits and autism? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2019; 49(10): 4159–69.Google Scholar

Baron‐Cohen, S. An assessment of violence in a young man with Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1988; 29(3): 351–60.Google Scholar

Barry-Walsh, JB, Mullen, PE. Forensic aspects of Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2004; 15(1): 96–107.Google Scholar

Chen, PS, Chen, SJ, Yang, YK, Yeh, TL, Chen, CC, Lo, HY. Asperger’s disorder: a case report of repeated stealing and the collecting behaviours of an adolescent patient. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2003; 107(1): 73–76.Google Scholar

Chesterman, P, Rutter, SC. Case report: Asperger’s syndrome and sexual offending. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry 1993; 4(3): 555–62.Google Scholar

Cooper, SA, Mohamed, WN, Collacott, RA. Possible Asperger’s syndrome in a mentally handicapped transvestite offender. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 1993; 37(2): 189–94.Google Scholar

Hall, I, Bernal, J. Asperger’s syndrome and violence. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1995; 166(2): 262.Google Scholar

Kohn, Y, Fahum, T, Ratzoni, G, Apter, A. Aggression and sexual offense in Asperger’s syndrome. The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences 1998; 35(4): 293–9.Google Scholar

Kumar, S, Devendran, Y, Radhakrishna, A, Karanth, V, Hongally, C. A case series of five individuals with Asperger syndrome and sexual criminality. Journal of Mental Health and Human Behaviour 2017; 22(1): 63.Google Scholar

Mawson, DC, Grounds, A, Tantam, D. Violence and Asperger’s syndrome: a case study. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1985; 147: 566–9.Google Scholar

Milton, J, Duggan, C, Latham, A. Egan, V, Tantam, D. Case history of co-morbid Asperger’s syndrome and paraphilic behaviour. Medicine, Science and the Law 2002; 42(3): 237–44.Google Scholar

Murrie, DC, Warren, JI, Kristiansson, M, Dietz, PE. Asperger’s syndrome in forensic settings. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 2002; 1(1): 59–70.Google Scholar

Silva, JA, Ferrari, MM, Leong, GB. What happened to Jeffrey? A neuropsychiatric developmental analysis of serial killing behaviour. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Volume VIII, American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Atlanta, GA and Colorado Springs, CO, 11–16 February 2002.Google Scholar

Silva, JA, Ferrari, MM, Leong, GB. The neuropsychiatric developmental analysis of serial killer behaviour. Annual meeting program, American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, Newport Beach, CA and Bloomfield, CT, 24–27 October 2002.Google Scholar

Silva, J.A. Wu, JC, Leon, GB. Neuropsychiatric developmental analysis of sexual murder. Annual meeting program, American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, San Antonio, TX and Bloomfield, CT, October 16–19, 2003.Google Scholar

Silva, JA, Leong, GB, Ferrari, MM. A neuropsychiatric developmental model of serial homicidal behavior. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 2004; 22(6): 787–99.Google Scholar

Simblett, GJ, Wilson, DN. Asperger’s syndrome: Three cases and a discussion. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 1993; 37(1): 85–94.Google Scholar

Hare, D, Gould, J, Mills, R, Wing, L. A preliminary study of individuals with autistic spectrum disorders in three special hospitals in England. National Autistic Society. 1999. Available at www.aspires-relationships.com/3hospitals.pdf.Google Scholar

Scragg, P, Shah, A. Prevalence of Asperger’s syndrome in a secure hospital. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1994; 165(5): 679–82.Google Scholar

Woodbury-Smith, MR, Clare, ICH, Holland, AJ, Kearns, A. High functioning autistic spectrum disorders, offending and other law-breaking: findings from a community sample. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2006; 17(1): 108–20.Google Scholar

Cederlund, M, Hagberg, B, Billstedt, E, Gillberg, IC, Gillberg, C. Asperger syndrome and autism: A comparative longitudinal follow-up study more than 5 years after original diagnosis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2008; 38(1): 72–85.Google Scholar

Mouridsen, SE, Rich, B, Isage, T, Nedergaard, NJ. Pervasive developmental disorders and criminal behavior: a case control study. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 2008; 52(2): 196–205.Google Scholar

Långström, N, Grann, M, Ruchkin, V, Sjöstedt, G, Fazel, S. Risk factors for violent offending in autism spectrum disorder: a national study of hospitalized individuals. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; 24(8): 1358–70.Google Scholar

Haskins, BG, Silva, JA. Asperger’s disorder and criminal behavior: forensic psychiatric considerations. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online 2006; 34(3): 374–84.Google Scholar

Lazaratou, H, Giannopoulou, I, Anomitri, C, Douzenis, A. Case report: matricide by a 17-year old boy with Asperger’s syndrome. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2016; 31: 61–5.Google Scholar

Woodbury-Smith, M, Clare, I, Holland, AJ, Watson, PC, Bambrick, M, Kearns, A, Staufenberg, E. Circumscribed interests and ‘offenders’ with autism spectrum disorders: a case–control study. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2010; 21(3): 366–77.Google Scholar

Fitzgerald, M. Autism and school shootings: overlap of autism (Asperger’s syndrome) and general psychopathy. In Fitzgerald M, ed., Autism Spectrum Disorder: Recent Advances. InTech, 2015, chapter 1.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Wilson, P, Minnis, H, Thompson, L, Yaksic, E, Gillberg, C. Violence is rare in autism: when it does occur, is it sometimes extreme? The Journal of Psychology 2017; 151(1): 49–68.Google Scholar

Fccini, L. The application of the models of autism, psychopathology and deficient Eriksonian development and the path of intended violence to understand the Newtown shooting. Archives of Forensic Psychology 2016; 1(3): 1–13.Google Scholar

Calhoun, FS, Weston, SW. Contemporary Threat Management: A Practical Guide for Identifying, Assessing, and Managing Individuals of Violent Intent. Specialized Training Services, 2003.Google Scholar

Faccini, L. The man who howled wolf: diagnostic and treatment considerations for a person with ASD and impersonal repetitive fire, bomb and presidential threats. American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry 2010; 31(4): 47.Google Scholar

Faccini, L, Allely, CS. Mass violence in individuals with autism spectrum disorder and narcissistic personality disorder: a case analysis of Anders Breivik using the ‘path to intended and terroristic violence’ model. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2016; 31: 229–36.Google Scholar

Faccini, L. Allely, CS. Mass violence in an individual with an autism spectrum disorder: a case analysis of Dean Allen Mellberg using the ‘path to intended violence’ model. International Journal of Psychological Research 2016b; 11(1): 1–18.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Faccini, L. ‘Path to intended violence’ model to understand mass violence in the case of Elliot Rodger. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2017; 37: 201–9.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Faccini, L. Clinical profile, risk, and critical factors and the application of the ‘path toward intended violence’ model in the case of mass shooter Dylann Roof. Deviant Behavior 2019; 40(6): 672–89.Google Scholar

Williams, D. Understanding the Arsonist: From Assessment to Confession. Lawyers and Judges, 2005.Google Scholar

Gannon, TA, Pina, A. Firesetting: psychopathology, theory and treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2010; 15: 224–38.Google Scholar

Alexander, RT, Chester, V, Green, FN, Gunaratna, I, Hoare, S. Arson or fire setting in offenders with intellectual disability: clinical characteristics, forensic histories, and treatment outcomes. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability 2015; 40(2): 189–97.Google Scholar

Siponmaa, L, Kristiansson, M, Jonson, C, Nydén, A, Gillberg, C. Juvenile and young adult mentally disordered offenders: the role of child neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 2001; 29(4): 420–6.Google Scholar

Freckelton, S I, List, D. Asperger’s disorder, criminal responsibility and criminal culpability. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 2009; 16(1): 16–40.Google Scholar

McEwan, T, Freckelton, I. Assessment, treatment and sentencing of arson offenders: an overview. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law( 2011; 18(3): 319–328.Google Scholar

Allely, CS. Firesetting and arson in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic PRISMA review. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2019; 10(4): 89–101.Google Scholar

Faccini, L, Allely, CS. Rare instances of individuals with autism supporting or engaging in terrorism. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2017; 8(20): 70–82.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Autism spectrum disorders and terrorism: how different features of autism can contextualise vulnerability and resilience. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2020; 31(6): 926–49.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Autism & terrorism links: fact or fiction? 15th International Conference on the Care and Treatment of Offenders with an Intellectual and/or Developmental Disability, National Autistic Society, April 19–20, 2016, Manchester.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Autism and terrorism links: baseless headlines or clinical reality? XIth AutismEurope International Congress, Autism-Europe and National Autistic Society, September 16–18, 2016, Edinburgh,Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Interviewing terrorism suspects and offenders with an autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 2018; 17(4), 321–37.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Terrorism and autism: making sense of the links in formulations of risk and protective factors. The Autism Professionals Annual Conference, March 7–8, 2018, Harrogate.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Extremism, radicalisation and mental health: handbook for practitioners. 2019. Available at: https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2019-11/ran_h-sc_handbook-for-practitioners_extremism-radicalisation-mental-health_112019_en.pdf.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Development and evaluation of guidance to aid risk assessments of offenders with autism. Unpublished MA dissertation, Sheffield Hallam University, 2018.Google Scholar

Craig, J, Baron-Cohen, S. Creativity and imagination in autism and Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1999; 29(4): 319–26.Google Scholar

Klin, A, Danovitch, JH, Merz, AB, Volkmar, FR. Circumscribed interests in higher functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorders: an exploratory study. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 2007; 32(2): 89–100.Google Scholar

Tager-Flusberg, H. The origins of social impairments in autism spectrum disorder: studies of infants at risk. Neural Networks 2010; 23(8–9): 1072–6.Google Scholar

Tager-Flusberg, H. A psychological approach to understanding the social and language impairments in autism. International Review of Psychiatry 1999; 11(4): 325–34.Google Scholar

Tager-Flusberg, H, Joseph, RM. Identifying neurocognitive phenotypes in autism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 2003; 358(1430): 303–14.Google Scholar

Happė, F, Frith, U. The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2006; 36(1): 5–25.Google Scholar

Walęcka, M, Wojciechowska, K, Wichniak, A. Central coherence in adults with a high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. In a search for a non-self-reporting screening tool. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult 2020; 29(4): 677–83.Google Scholar

Hill, EL. Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review 2004; 24(2): 189–233.Google Scholar

Baron-Cohen, S. The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2002; 6(6): 248–54.Google Scholar

Milton, DE. On the ontological status of autism: the ‘double empathy problem’. Disability and Society 2012; 27(6): 883–7.Google Scholar

Crane, L, Goddard, L, Pring, L. Sensory processing in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Autism 2009; 13(3): 215–28.Google Scholar

Al-Attar, Z. Interviewing terrorism suspects and offenders with an autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 2018; 17(4): 321–37.Google Scholar

Walter, F, Leonard, S, Miah, S, Shaw, J. Characteristics of autism spectrum disorder and susceptibility to radicalisation among young people: a qualitative study. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2020; 32(3): 408–29.Google Scholar

Fujikawa, Y, Umeshita, S, Mutura, H. Sexual crimes committed by adolescents with Asperger’s disorder: problems of management by the viewpoint of probation officers at a family court. Japanese Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2002; 43(3): 280–9.Google Scholar

Kellaher, DC. Sexual behavior and autism spectrum disorders: an update and discussion. Current Psychiatry Reports 2015; 17(4): 25.Google Scholar

Kumagami, T, Matsuura, N. Prevalence of pervasive developmental disorder in juvenile court cases in Japan. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2009; 20(6): 974–87.Google Scholar

Sutton, LR, Hughes, TL, Huang, A, Lehman, C, Paserba, D, Talkington, V, et al. Identifying individuals with autism in a state facility for adolescents adjudicated as sexual offenders: a pilot study. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities 2013; 28(3): 175–83.Google Scholar

Allen, D, Evans, C, Hider, A, Hawkins, S, Peckett, H, Morgan, H. Offending behaviour in adults with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2008; 38(4): 748–58.Google Scholar

Allely, C, Creaby-Attwood, A. Sexual offending and autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2016; 7(1): 35–51.Google Scholar

Creaby-Attwood, A, Allely, CS. A psycho-legal perspective on sexual offending in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2017; 55: 72–80.Google Scholar

Allely, C. Sexual offending behaviour in young people with intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum disorder: autism and the criminal justice system. Available at: https://pure.strath.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/87493838/Allely_CYCJ_2019_sexual_offending_behaviour_in_young_people_with_intellectual_disabilities_and_autism_spectrum_disorder.pdf.Google Scholar

Mercer, JE, Allely, CS. Autism spectrum disorders and stalking. Journal of Criminal Psychology 2020; 10(3): 201–18.Google Scholar

Freckelton, I. Asperger’s disorder and the criminal law. Journal of Law and Medicine 2011; 18: 677–91.Google Scholar

Higgs, T, Carter, AJ. Autism spectrum disorder and sexual offending: responsivity in forensic interventions. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2015; 22, 112–19.Google Scholar

Stokes, M, Newton, N, Kaur, A. Stalking, and social and romantic functioning among adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2007, 37(10): 1969–86.Google Scholar

Freckelton, I. Autism spectrum disorder: forensic issues and challenges for mental health professionals and courts. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2013; 26(5): 420–34.Google Scholar

Berryessa, CM. Educator of the court: the role of the expert witness in cases involving autism spectrum disorder. Psychology, Crime and Law 2017; 23(6): 575–600.Google Scholar

Berryessa, C. Defendants with autism spectrum disorder in criminal court: a judges’ toolkit. Drexel Law Review 2021; 13(4): 841–68.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental D^isorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar

Hughes, N, Williams, H, Chitsabesan, P, Davies, R, Mounce, L. Nobody Made the Connection: The Prevalence of Neurodevelopmental impairment in Young People Who Offend. Office of the Children’s Commissioner for England, 2012.Google Scholar

Murray, J, Farrington, DP. Risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency: key findings from longitudinal studies. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 2010; 55: 633–42.Google Scholar

Stevenson, M. Young People and Offending: Education, Youth Justice and Social Care Inclusion. Williams Publishing, 2006.Google Scholar

Moffitt, T, Caspi, A, Rutter, M, Silva, P. Sex Differences in Antisocial Behaviour: Conduct Disorder and Delinquency and Violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. Cambridge University Press, 2001.Google Scholar

Hughes, N. Understanding the influence of neurodevelopmental disorders on offending: utilizing developmental psychopathology in biosocial criminology. Criminal Justice Studies 2015; 28(1): 39–60.Google Scholar

Meltzer, L, ed. Executive Function in Education: From Theory to Practice. Guilford Press, 2007.Google Scholar

Ogilvie, JM, Stewart, AL, Chan, RCK, Shum, DHK. Neuropsychological measures of executive function and antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis. Criminology 2011; 49: 1063–107.Google Scholar

Burd, L, Fast, DK, Conry, J, Williams, A. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder as marker for increased risk of involvement with correction systems. Journal of Psychiatry and Law 2010; 38(4): 559–83.Google Scholar

Williams, WH. Repairing Shattered Lives: Brain Injury and Its Implications for Criminal Justice. Transition to Adulthood Alliance, 2013.Google Scholar

Sesma, HW, Slomine, BS, Ding, R, McCarthy, ML. Children’s Health After Trauma (CHAT) study group. Executive functioning in the first year after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics 2008; 121: E1686–95.Google Scholar

Catroppa, C, Anderson, V. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of pediatric traumatic brain injury. Future Neurology 2009; 4(6): 811–21.Google Scholar

Farrington, DP, Welsh, BC. Saving Children from a Life of Crime: Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions. Oxford University Press, 2007.Google Scholar

Joliffe, D, Farrington, DP. Empathy and offending: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behaviour 2004; 9: 441–76.Google Scholar

Jolliffe, D, Farrington, DP. Individual differences and offending. In McLaughlin, E, Newburn, T, eds. The SAGE Handbook of Criminological Theory, SAGE Publications, 2010: 40–56.Google Scholar

Ryan, NP, Anderson, V, Godfrey, C, Eren, S, Rosema, S, Taylor, K, et al. Social communication mediates the relationship between emotion perception and externalizing behaviors in young adult survivors of pediatric traumatic brain injury. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience 2013; 31: 811–19.Google Scholar

Davidson, RJ, Putnam, KM, Larson, CL. Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation: a possible prelude to violence. Science 2000; 289: 591–4.Google Scholar

Fairchild, G, Passamonti, L, Hurford, G, Hagan, CC, von dem Hagen, EAH. , van Goozen, S, et al. Brain structure abnormalities in early onset and adolescent onset conduct disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2011; 168: 624–33.Google Scholar

Barkley, RA. Deficient emotional self regulation is a core component of ADHD. Journal of ADHD and Related Disorders 2009; 1(2): 5–37.Google Scholar

Wishart, JG, Cebula, KR, Willis, DS, Pitcairn, TK. Understanding of facial expressions of emotion by children with intellectual disabilities of differing etiology. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2007; 51: 551–63.Google Scholar

Ganesalingam, K, Sanson, A, Anderson, V, Yeates, KO. Self-regulation as a mediator of the effects of childhood traumatic brain injury on social and behavioural functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2007; 13(12): 298–311.Google Scholar

British Psychological Society. Learning Disability: Definitions and Contexts. British Psychological Society, 2001.Google Scholar

Green, JH. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: understanding the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and supporting students. Journal of School Health 2007; 77(3): 103–8.Google Scholar

Biederman, J. Functional impairments in adults with self-reports of diagnosed ADHD: a controlled study of 1001 adults in the community. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2006; 67(4): 524–40.Google Scholar

Snow, P, Powell, M. Youth (in)justice: oral language competence in early life and risk for engagement in antisocial behaviour in adolescence. Australian Institute of Criminology, Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 2012; 435: 421–44.Google Scholar

Pfiffner, L, Barkley, RA, DuPaul, GJ. Treatment of ADHD in school settings. In Barkley, RA, ed., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, 3rd ed. Guildford Press, 2006.Google Scholar

Public Health England. (2019). Collaborative approaches to preventing offending and re-offending in children (CAPRICORN). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/preventing-offending-and-re-offending-by-children/collaborative-approaches-to-preventing-offending-and-re-offending-by-children-capricorn-summary.Google Scholar

Grygiel, P, Humenny, G, Rębisz, S, Bajcar, E, Świtaj, P. Peer rejection and perceived quality of relations with schoolmates among children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders 2018; 22(8): 738–51.Google Scholar

Piquero, NL, Gover, AR, MacDonald, JM, Piquero, AR. The influence of delinquent peers on delinquency. Does gender matter? Youth & Society 2005; 36(3): 251–75.Google Scholar

Botting, N, Conti-Ramsden, G. Social and behavioural difficulties in children with language impairment. Child Language Teaching and Therapy 2000; 16(2): 105–20Google Scholar

Baldry, E, Dowse, L, Clarence, M. People with mental and cognitive disabilities: pathways into prison. Background Paper for National Legal Aid Conference, 2011, Darwin, Australia.Google Scholar

Wade, SL, Taylor, HG, Drotar, D, Stancin, T, Yeates, KO, Minich, NM. Parent–adolescent interactions after traumatic brain injury: their relationship to family adaptation and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2003; 18: 164–76.Google Scholar

Anderson, V, Godfrey, C, Rosenfeld, JV, Catroppa, C. Predictors of cognitive function and recovery 10 years after traumatic brain injury in young children. Pediatrics 2012; 129(2): 254–61.Google Scholar

Kaiser, NM, McBurnett, K, Pfiffner, LJ. Child ADHD severity and positive and negative parenting as predictors of child social functioning: evaluation of three theoretical models. Journal of Attention Disorders 2011; 15(3): 193–203.Google Scholar

Barnes, C. Disabled People in Britain and Discrimination: A Case for Anti-Discrimination Legislation. Hurst Publishers, 1991.Google Scholar

Chitsabesan, P, Bailey, S, Williams, R, Kroll, L, Kenning, C, Talbot, L. Learning disabilities and educational needs of juvenile offenders. Journal of Children’s Services 2007; 2(4): 4–14.Google Scholar

Harrington, R, Bailey, S. Mental Health Needs and Effectiveness of Provision for Young People in the Youth Justice System. Youth Justice Board, 2005.Google Scholar

McKenzie, K, Matheson, E, Patrick, S, Paxton, D, Murray, GC. An evaluation of the impact of a one day training course on the knowledge of health, day care and social care staff working in learning disability services. Journal of Learning Disabilities 2000; 4(2): 153–6.Google Scholar

Snow, PC, Powell, MB. Oral language competence in incarcerated young offenders: links with offending severity. International Journal of Speech–Language Pathology 2011; 13(6): 480–9.Google Scholar

Talbot, J. Prisoner’ voices: experience of the criminal justice system by prisoners with learning disabilities. Tizard Learning Disability Review 2010; 15: 33–41.Google Scholar

United Nations Children’s Fund UK. The United Nations convention on the rights of the child. 1989. Available at: https://downloads.unicef.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/UNCRC_PRESS200910web.pdf?_ga=2.78590034.795419542.1582474737-1972578648.1582474737.Google Scholar

United Nations. Conventions on the Rights of the Child. General comment No. 24 on children’s rights in the child justice system (CRC/C/GC/24*). Available at: https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G19/275/57/PDF/G1927557.pdf?OpenElement.Google Scholar

Offender Health Research Network. The Comprehensive Health Assessment Tool (CHAT): young people in the secure estate – version 3. 2013. Available at: www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/34907062/chat-tool-offender-health-research-network.Google Scholar

Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health. Healthcare standards for children and young people in secure settings. 2019. Available at: www.rcpch.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2019-09/RCPCH_Healthcare%20Standards%20for%20Children%20and%20Young%20People%201.2%20updated%202019-09.pdf.Google Scholar

Hughes, N. Models and approaches to family-focused policy and practice. Social Policy and Society 2010; 9(4): 527–32.Google Scholar

Youth Justice Board. Barriers to Engagement in Education, Training and Employment. Youth Justice Board, 2006.Google Scholar

Williams, HW, Giray, C, Mewse, AJ, Tonks, J, Burgess, CNW. Self-reported traumatic brain injury in male young offenders: a risk factor for re-offending, poor mental health and violence? Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 2010; 20(6): 801–12.Google Scholar

Ferguson, PL, Pickelsimer, EE, Corrigan, JD, Bogner, JA, Wald, M. Prevalence of traumatic brain injury among prisoners in South Carolina. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2012; 27: E11–20.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; diagnosis and management. NICE Guideline [NG87]. NICE 2018.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Autism: Recognition, Referral and Diagnosis in Children and Young People on the Autism Spectrum. NICE Clinical Guideline 128. NICE, 2011.Google Scholar

Chitsabesan, P, Lennox, C, Williams, H, Tariq, O, Shaw, J. Traumatic brain injury in juvenile offenders: findings from the comprehensive health assessment tool study and the development of a specialist linkworker service. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2015; 30(2): 106–15.Google Scholar

The Disabilities Trust Foundation. Brain injury and offending. Available at: www.thedtgroup.org/foundation/offenders-with-brain-injury.aspx.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Antisocial behaviour and conduct disorders in children and young people: recognition and management. Clinical Guideline [CG158], NICE Last updated 19 April 2017.Google Scholar

Murphy, D. Extreme violence in a man with an autistic spectrum disorder: assessment and treatment within high-security psychiatric care. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2010; 21: 462–77.Google Scholar

Jones, KL, Smith, DW. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome. Lancet 1973; 302(7836): 999–1001.Google Scholar

Lemoine, P, Harousseau, H, Borteryu, JP, Menuet, JC. les enfants des parents alcoholiques: anomolies observees a propos de 127 cas. Quest Medical 1968; 25(476): 482.Google Scholar

Institute of Medicine. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Treatment. National Academies Press, 1996.Google Scholar

Astley, SJP, Stachowiak, JR, Clarren, SKM, Clausen, CR. Application of the fetal alcohol syndrome facial photographic screening tool in a foster care population. Journal of Pediatrics 2002; 141(5): 712–17.Google Scholar

Chudley, AE, Conry, J, Cook, JL, Loock, C, Rosales, T, LeBlanc, N. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2005; 172(5 suppl): S1–S21.Google Scholar

Cook, JL, Green, CR, Lilley, CM, Anderson, SM, Baldwin, ME, Chudley, AE, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a guideline for diagnosis across the lifespan. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2016; 188(3): 191–7.Google Scholar

Bower, C, Elliott, EJ, Zimmet, M, Doorey, J, Wilkins, A, Russell, V, et al. Australian guide to the diagnosis of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder: a summary. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 2017; 53(10): 1021–3.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar

Healthcare Improvement Scotland. SIGN 156. Children and young people exposed to prenatal alcohol. 2019. Available at: www.sign.ac.uk/media/1092/sign156.pdf.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. FASD quality standards consultation. 2022. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/indevelopment/gid-qs10139/documents.Google Scholar

Mukherjee, RAS, Wray, E, Curfs, L, Hollins, S. Knowledge and opinions of professional groups concerning FASD in the UK. Journal of Adoption and Fostering 2015; 39: 212–24.Google Scholar

Suttie, M, Wetherill, L, Jacobson, SW, Jacobson, JL, Hoyme, HE, Sowell, ER, et al. Facial curvature detects and explicates ethnic differences in effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 2017; 41(8): 1471–83.Google Scholar

McQuire, C, Mukherjee, R, Hurt, L, Higgins, A, Greene, G, Farewell, D, et al. Screening prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in a region of the United Kingdom: a population-based birth-cohort study. Preventive Medicine 2019; 118: 344–51.Google Scholar

Mukherjee, RAS. The relationship between ADHD and FASD. Thrombus 2016; 8: 4–7.Google Scholar

Mukherjee, RAS, Layton, M, Yacoub, E, Turk, JT. Autism and autistic traits in people exposed to heavy prenatal alcohol: data from a clinical series of 21 individuals and a nested case control study. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disability 2011; 5: 43–9.Google Scholar

Mohamed, Z, Carlisle, ACS, Livesey, AC, Mukherjee, RAS. Comparisons of the BRIEF parental report and neuropsychological clinical tests of executive function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: data from the UK national specialist clinic. Child Neuropsychology 2019; 25(5): 648–63.Google Scholar

Popova, S, Lange, S, Shield, K, Mihic, A, Chudley, AE, Mukherjee, RAS, et al. Comorbidity of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2016; 387: 978–87.Google Scholar

Douzgou, S, Breen, C, Crow, YJ, Chandler, K, Metcalfe, K, Jones, E, et al. Diagnosing fetal alcohol syndrome: new insights from newer genetic technologies. Archives of Diseases in Children 2012; 97(9): 812–17.Google Scholar

Preece, PM, Riley, EP. Alcohol, Drugs and Medication in Pregnancy. Mac Keith Press, 2011.Google Scholar

Mukherjee, RAS, Cook, PA, Norgate, SH, Price, AD. Neurodevelopmental outcomes in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) with and without exposure to neglect: clinical cohort data from a national FASD diagnostic clinic. Alcohol 2019; 7: 23–8.Google Scholar

Streissguth, AP, O’Malley, K. Neuropsychiatric implications and long-term consequences of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry 2000; 5(3): 177–90.Google Scholar

Morleo, M, Woolfall, K, Dedman, D, Mukherjee, RAS, Bellis, MA, Cook, PA. Under-reporting of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: an analysis of hospital episode statistics. BMC Paediatrics 2011; 11: 14.Google Scholar

Lange, S., Probst, C., Gmel, G., Rehm, J., Burd, L., & Popova, S. (2017). Global prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among children and youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA pediatrics, 171(10), 948–956.Google Scholar

May, PA, Chambers, CD, Kalberg, Wo, Zellner, J, Feldman, H, Buckley, D, et al., Prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in 4 US communities. JAMA 2018; 319(5): 474–83.Google Scholar

Burd, L, Selfridge, R, Klug, M, Bakko, S. Fetal alcohol syndrome in the United States corrections system. Addiction Biology 2004; 9(2): 169–78.Google Scholar

Bower, C, Watkins, RE, Mutch, RC, Marriott, R, Freeman, J, Kippin, NR, et al. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder and youth justice: a prevalence study among young people sentenced to detention in Western Australia. BMJ Open 2018; 8(2): e019605.Google Scholar

Popova, S, Lange, S, Bekmuradov, D, Mihic, A, Rehm, J. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder prevalence estimates in correctional systems: a systematic literature review. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2011; 102(5): 336–40.Google Scholar

Selwyn, J, Wijedesa, D. Pathways to adoption for minority ethnic children in England: reasons for entry to care. Child and Family Social Work 2011; 16(3): 276–86.Google Scholar

Gregory, G, Reddy, V, Young, C. Identifying children who are at risk of FASD in Peterborough: working in a community clinic without access to gold standard dignosis. Journal of Adoption and Fostering 2015; 39(3): 225–34.Google Scholar

Fitzpatrick, C. Looked After Children and the Criminal Justice System. John Wiley & Sons, 2009.Google Scholar

Young, S, Moss, D, Sedgwick, O, Fridman, M, Hodgkins, P. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in incarcerated populations. Psychological Medicine 2015; 45(2): 247–58.Google Scholar

Dalsgaard, S, Mortensen, PB, Frydenberg, M, Thomsen, PH. Long-term criminal outcome of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 2013; 23(2): 86–98.Google Scholar

Satterfield, J, Swanson, J, Schell, A, Lee, F. Prediction of antisocial behavior in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder boys from aggression/defiance scores. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1994; 33(2): 185–90.Google Scholar

Rösler, M, Retz, W, Yaqoobi, K, Burg, E, Retz-Junginger, P. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in female offenders: prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial implications. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2009; 259(2): 98–105.Google Scholar

Rösler, M, Retz, W, Retz-Junginger, P, Hengesch, G, Schneider, M, Supprian, T, et al. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders in young male prison inmates. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 2004; 254(6): 365–71.Google Scholar

Haapasalo, J, Hämäläinen, T. Childhood family problems and current psychiatric problems among young violent and property offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1996; 35(10): 1394–401.Google Scholar

Young, S, Moss, D, Sedgwick, O, Fridman, M, Hodgkins, P. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in incarcerated populations. Psychological Medicine 2015; 45(2): 247–58.Google Scholar

Baird, G, Simonoff, E, Pickles, A, Chandler, S, Loucas, T, Meldrum, D, Charman, T. (2006). Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the special needs and autism project (SNAP). Lancet 368, 210–215.Google Scholar

Kawamura, Y, Takahashi, O, Ishii, T. Reevaluating the incidence of pervasive developmental disorders: impact of elevated rates of detection through implementation of an integrated system of screening in Toyota, Japan. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 2008; 62(2): 152–9.Google Scholar

Kumagami, T, Matsuura, N. Prevalence of pervasive developmental disorder in juvenile court cases in Japan. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 2009; 20(6): 974–87.Google Scholar

Ståhlberg, O, Anckarsäter, H, Nilsson, T. Mental health problems in youths committed to juvenile institutions: prevalences and treatment needs. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2010; 19: 893–903.Google Scholar

Gillberg, C, Cederlund, M, Lamberg, K, Zeijlon, L. Brief report: ‘the autism epidemic’. the registered prevalence of autism in a Swedish urban area. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2006; 36(3): 429–35.Google Scholar

Streissguth, AP, Bookstein, FL, Barr, HM, Sampson, PD, O’Malley, K, Young, JK. Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 2004; 25(4): 228–38.Google Scholar

McLachlan, K, Roesch, R, Viljoen, JL, Douglas, KS. Evaluating the psycholegal abilities of young offenders with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Law and Human Behavior 2014; 38(1): 10–22.Google Scholar

Douglas, H, Hammill, J, Hall, W, Russell, E. Judicial views of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Queensland’s criminal justice system. Journal of Judicial Administration 2012; 21(3): 178–88.Google Scholar

Reid, N, Dawe, S, Harnett, P, Shelton, D, Hutton, L, O’Callaghan, F. Feasibility study of a family-focused intervention to improve outcomes for children with FASD. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2017; 67: 34–46.Google Scholar

Fast, DK, Conry, J. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the criminal justice system. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 2009; 15(3): 250–7.Google Scholar

Corrado, R, Freedman, L. Risk profiles, trajectories, and intervention points for serious and chronic young offenders. International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies 2011; 2(2.1): 197–232.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH. The Psychology of Interrogations, Confessions and Testimony. John Wiley & Sons, 1992.Google Scholar

Central Planning and Training Unit. A Guide to Interviewing. Central Planning and Training Unit, 1992.Google Scholar

Inbau, F, Reid, J, Buckley, J, Jayne, B. Criminal Interrogation and Confessions. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2011.Google Scholar

Leo, RA. Inside the interrogation room. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 1996; 86: 266–303.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH. The psychological vulnerabilities of witnesses and the risk of false accusations and false confessions. In Heaton-Armstrong, A, Shepherd, E, Gudjonsson, G, Wolchover, D, eds., Witness Testimony. Psychological, Investigative and Evidential Perspectives. Oxford University Press, 2006: 61–75.Google Scholar

Kassin, SM. The psychology of confession evidence. American Psychologist 1997; 52(3): 221.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH. Psychological vulnerabilities during police interviews. Why are they important? Legal and Criminological Psychology 2010; 15(2): 161–75.Google Scholar

Streissguth, AP, Bookstein, FL, Barr, HM, Press, S, Sampson, PD. A fetal alcohol behavior scale. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 1998; 22(2): 325–33.Google Scholar

Stuss, DT, Benson, DF. Neuropsychological studies of the frontal lobes. Psychological Bulletin 1984; 95(1): 3–28.Google Scholar

Brown, NN, Gudjonsson, G, Connor, P. Suggestibility and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: I’ll tell you anything you want to hear. Journal of Psychiatry and Law 2011; 39(1): 39–71.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH, Sigurdsson, JF, Bragason, OO, Newton, AK, Einarsson, E. Interrogative suggestibility, compliance and false confessions among prisoners and their relationship with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Psychological Medicine 2008; 38(7): 1037–44.Google Scholar

Baxter, JS, Jackson, M, Bain, SA. Interrogative suggestibility: interactions between interviewees’ self-esteem and interviewer style. Personality and Individual Differences 2003; 35(6): 1285–92.Google Scholar

Bain, SA, McGroarty, A, Runcie, M. Coping strategies, self-esteem and levels of interrogative suggestibility. Personality and Individual Differences 2015; 75: 85–9.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, G, Vagni, M, Maiorano, T, Pajardi, D. Age and memory related changes in children’s immediate and delayed suggestibility using the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale. Personality and Individual Differences 2016; 102: 25–9.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Cooper, P. Jurors’ and judges’ evaluation of defendants with autism and the impact on sentencing: a systematic Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) review of autism spectrum disorder in the courtroom. Journal of Law and Medicine 2017; 25(1): 105–23.Google Scholar

Sorge, GB. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder persons in Canadian criminal proceedings. York University, 2006.Google Scholar

Gagnier, KR, Moore, TE, Green, JM. A need for closer examination of FASD by the criminal justice system: has the call been answered? Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology 2011; 18(3): e426–e39.Google Scholar

Douds, AS, Stevens, HR, Sumner, WE. Sword or shield? A systematic review of the roles FASD evidence plays in judicial proceedings. Criminal Justice Policy Review 2013; 24(4): 492–509.Google Scholar

Clare, ICH, Gudjonsson, GH. Interrogative suggestibility, confabulation, and acquiescence in people with mild learning disabilities (mental handicap): implications for reliability during police interrogation. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 1993; 32: 295–301.Google Scholar

Mela, M, Flannigan, K, Anderson, T, Nelson, M, Krishnan, S, Chizea, C, et al. Neurocognitive function and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in offenders with mental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 2020; 48(2): 195–208.Google Scholar

Roach, K, Bailey, A. The relevance of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in Canadian criminal law from investigation to sentencing. UBC Law Review 2009; 42: 1–68.Google Scholar

Mutch, RC, Jones, HM, Bower, C, Watkins, RE. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: using knowledge, attitudes and practice of justice professionals to support their educational needs. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology 2016; 23(1): e77–e89.Google Scholar

Murphy, D. Interviewing individuals with an autism spectrum disorder in forensic settings. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 2018; 17(4): 310–20.Google Scholar

Advocate’s Gateway. Planning to question someone with autism spectrum disorder including Asperger syndrome. Advocate’s Gateway Toolkit 3. 2013. Available at: http://files.campus.edublogs.org/blogs.city.ac.uk/dist/5/192/files/2012/06/Autism-spectrum-disorder-192pnxv.pdf.Google Scholar

Allely, CS, Mukherjee, RAS. Suggestibility, false confessions and competency to stand trial in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: current concerns and recommendations. Journal of Criminal Psychology 2019; 9(4): 166–72.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association, 2013.Google Scholar

World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases 11th revision. 2022. Available at: www.who.int/standards/classifications/classification-of-diseases.Google Scholar

Hughes, N. Understanding the influence of neurodevelopmental disorders on offending: utilizing developmental psychopathology in biosocial criminology. Criminal Justice Studies 2015; 28(1): 39–60.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Underwood, L, Forrester, A, Hayward, H, Sabet, J, et al. Characteristics of prisoners with neurodevelopmental disorders and difficulties. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2016; 60(3): 201–6.Google Scholar

Billstedt, E, Anckarsäter, H, Wallinius, M, Hofvander, B. Neurodevelopmental disorders in young violent offenders: overlap and background characteristics. Psychiatry Research 2017; 252: 234–41.Google Scholar

Hilton, NZ, Ham, E, Green, MM. The roles of antisociality and neurodevelopmental problems in criminal violence and clinical outcomes among male forensic inpatients. Criminal Justice and Behavior 2017; 45(3): 293–315.Google Scholar

McEwan, TE, Strand, S. The role of psychopathology in stalking by adult strangers and acquaintances. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2013; 47(6): 546–55.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Forrester, A, Underwood, L, Hayward, H, Sabet, J, et al. Prisoners with neurodevelopmental difficulties: vulnerabilities for mental illness and self-harm. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 2019; 29(5–6): 308–20.Google Scholar

Underwood, L, Forrester, A, Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J. Prisoners with neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2013; 4(1–2): 17–23.Google Scholar

HM Inspectorate of Probation, HM Inspectorate of Constabulary, HM Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate and the Care Quality Commission. A joint inspection of the treatment of offenders with learning disabilities within the criminal justice system – phase 1 from arrest to sentence. 2014. Available at: www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/publications/joint-inspection-of-the-treatment-of-offenders-with-learning-disabilities-within-the-criminal-justice-system/.Google Scholar

Helmchen, H., & Linden, M. (2000). Subthreshold disorders in psychiatry: clinical reality, methodological artifact, and the double-threshold problem. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41(2), 1–7.Google Scholar

Pettersson, E, Anckarsater, H, Gillberg, C, Lichtenstein, P. Different neurodevelopmental symptoms have a common genetic etiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2013; 54(12): 1356–65.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Amanda, K, Lisette Saunders, P, Chaplin, E, Underwood, L, Forrester, A, et al. Screening and diagnostic assessment of neurodevelopmental disorders in a male prison. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2015; 6(2): 102–11.Google Scholar

Dell’Osso, L, Gesi, C, Massimetti, E, Cremone, I, Barbuti, M, Maccariello, G, et al. Adult Autism Subthreshold Spectrum (AdAS Spectrum): validation of a questionnaire investigating subthreshold autism spectrum. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2017; 73: 61–83.Google Scholar

McKenzie, K, Michie, A, Murray, A, Hales, C. Screening for offenders with an intellectual disability: the validity of the Learning Disability Screening Questionnaire. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2012; 33(3): 791–5.Google Scholar

Ali, S, Galloway, S. Developing a screening tool for offenders with intellectual disabilities: the RAPID. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2016; 7(3): 161–70.Google Scholar

Booth, T, Murray, AL, McKenzie, K, Kuenssberg, R, O’Donnell, M, Burnett, H. Brief report: an evaluation of the AQ-10 as a brief screening instrument for ASD in adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2013; 43(12): 2997–3000.Google Scholar

Allison, C, Auyeung, B, Baron-Cohen, S. Toward brief ‘red flags’ for autism screening: the short autism spectrum quotient and the short quantitative checklist in 1,000 cases and 3,000 controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2012; 51(2): 202–12.Google Scholar

Adler, LA, Spencer, T, Faraone, SV, Kessler, RC, Howes, MJ, Biederman, J, et al. Validity of pilot Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) to rate adult ADHD symptoms. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 2006; 18(3): 145–8.Google Scholar

Kessler, RC, Adler, L, Ames, M, Demler, O, Faraone, S, Hiripi, E, et al. The World Health Organization Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS): a short screening scale for use in the general population. Psychological Medicine 2005; 35(2): 245–56.Google Scholar

Fernell, E, Gillberg, C. Borderline intellectual functioning. In Gallagher, A, Bulteau, C, Cohen, D, Michaud, JL, eds., Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Elsevier, 2020: 77–81.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists. Forensic care pathways for adults with intellectual disability involved with the criminal justice system. 2014. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/docs/default-source/members/faculties/intellectual-disability/id-fr-id-04.pdf?sfvrsn=ba5ce38a_4.Google Scholar

Søndenaa, E, Olsen, T, Kermit, PS, Dahl, NC, Envik, R. Intellectual disabilities and offending behaviour: the awareness and concerns of the police, district attorneys and judges. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2019; 10(2): 34–42.Google Scholar

Luteijn, I, Didden, R, der Nagel, JV. Individuals with mild intellectual disability or borderline intellectual functioning in a forensic addiction treatment center: prevalence and clinical characteristics. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders 2017; 1(4): 240–51.Google Scholar

Woiez, I, Eggink, E, Putman, L, Ras, M. An International Comparison of Care for People with Intellectual Disabilities: An Exploration. The Netherlands Institute for Social Research, 2018.Google Scholar

Segeren, MW, Fassaert, TJL, Kea, R, De Wit, MAS, Popma, A. Exploring differences in criminogenic risk factors and criminal behavior between young adult violent offenders with and without mild to borderline intellectual disability. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 2018; 62(4): 978–99.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists. The psychiatric management of autism in adults College Report 228. 2020. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/improving-care/campaigning-for-better-mental-health-policy/college-reports/2020-college-reports/cr228.Google Scholar

De Groot, K, Van Strien, JW. Evidence for a broad autism phenotype. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders 2017; 1(3): 129–40.Google Scholar

Dell’Osso, L, Luche, RD, Gesi, C, Moroni, I, Carmassi, C, Maj, M. From Asperger’s Autistischen Psychopathen to DSM-5 autism spectrum disorder and beyond: a subthreshold autism spectrum model. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2016; 12: 120–31.Google Scholar

Dell’Osso, L, Lorenzi, P, Carpita, B. Autistic traits and illness trajectories. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health 2019; 15: 94.Google Scholar

Young, S, Gudjonsson, G, Chitsabesan, P, Colley, B, Farrag, E, Forrester, A, et al. Identification and treatment of offenders with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the prison population: a practical approach based upon expert consensus. BMC Psychiatry 2018; 18(1): 281.Google Scholar

Young, S, Gudjonsson, GH, Wells, J, Asherson, P, Theobald, D, Oliver, B, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and critical incidents in a Scottish prison population. Personality and Individual Differences 2009; 46(3): 265–9.Google Scholar

Kooij, JJS, Bijlenga, D, Salerno, L, Jaeschke, R, Bitter, I, Balazs, J, et al. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. European Psychiatry 2019; 56: 14–34.Google Scholar

Young, S, Gudjonsson, GH. Growing out of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders 2008; 12(2): 162–9.Google Scholar

Machado, A, Rafaela, D, Silva, T, Veigas, T, Cerejeira, J. ADHD among offenders: prevalence and relationship with psychopathic traits. Journal of Attention Disorders 2020; 24(14): 2021–9.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH, Sigurdsson, JF, Sigfusdottir, ID, Young, S. A national epidemiological study of offending and its relationship with ADHD symptoms and associated risk factors. Journal of Attention Disorders 2014; 18(1): 3–13.Google Scholar

Du Rietz, E, Pettersson, E, Brikell, I, Ghirardi, L, Chen, Q, Hartman, C, et al. Overlap between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and neurodevelopmental, externalising and internalising disorders: separating unique from general psychopathology effects. British Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 218(1): 35–42.Google Scholar

Murphy, D, Glaser, K, Hayward, H, Eklund, H, Cadman, T, Findon, J, et al. Crossing the divide: a longitudinal study of effective treatments for people with autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Programme Grants for Applied Research 2018; 6(2): 1–240.Google Scholar

Norén Selinus, E, Molero, Y, Lichtenstein, P, Anckarsäter, H, Lundström, S, Bottai, M, et al. Subthreshold and threshold attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in childhood: psychosocial outcomes in adolescence in boys and girls. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2016; 134(6): 533–45.Google Scholar

Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J, Allely, CS, Forrester, A, Underwood, L et al. Self-harm and mental health characteristics of prisoners with elevated rates of autistic traits. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2021; 114: 103987.Google Scholar

Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J, Underwood, L, Forrester, A, Hayward, H, Sabet, J, et al. Characteristics of prisoners with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2017; 61(12): 1185–95.Google Scholar

Chaplin, E, Rawat, A, Perera, B, McCarthy, J, Courtenay, K, Forrester, A, et al. Prisoners with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: co-morbidities and service pathways. International Journal of Prisoner Health 2021; 18(3): 245–58.Google Scholar

Usher, AM, Stewart, LA, Wilton, G. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a Canadian prison population. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2013; 36(3–4): 311–15.Google Scholar

Athanassiou, U, Cale, J, Dowse, L. A descriptive study of sex offending among incarcerated men with low intellectual functioning: offending parameters and sex offence characteristics in adulthood. Current Issues in Criminal Justice 2020; 32(1): 76–90.Google Scholar

Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J, Underwood, L. Autism spectrum conditions and offending: an introduction to the special edition. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2013; 4(1/2): 5–8.Google Scholar

Young, S, González, RA, Mullens, H, Mutch, L, Malet-Lambert, I, Gudjonsson, GH. Neurodevelopmental disorders in prison inmates: comorbidity and combined associations with psychiatric symptoms and behavioural disturbance. Psychiatry Research 2018; 1(261): 109–15.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E, Forrester, A, Underwood, L, Hayward, H, Sabet, J, et al. Prisoners with neurodevelopmental difficulties: vulnerabilities for mental illness and self‐harm. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 2019; 29(5–6): 308–20.Google Scholar

Cooper, SA, Smiley, E, Morrison, J, Williamson, A, Allan, L. Mental ill-health in adults with intellectual disabilities: prevalence and associated factors. British Journal of Psychiatry 2007; 190(1): 27–35.Google Scholar

Public Health England. Learning Disabilities Observatory: people with learning disabilities in England 2015 – main report. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/613182/PWLDIE_2015_main_report_NB090517.pdf#:~:text=People%20with%20learning%20disabilities%20in%20England%202015%3A%20Main,is%2C%20within%20a%20single%20publication%2C%20to%20provide%20.Google Scholar

King, C, Murphy, G. A systematic review of people with autism spectrum disorder and the criminal justice system. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2014; 44(11): 2717–33.Google Scholar

Reale, L, Bartoli, B, Cartabia, M, Zanetti, M, Costantino, MA, Canevini, MP, et al. Comorbidity prevalence and treatment outcome in children and adolescents with ADHD. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 2017; 26(12): 1443–57.Google Scholar

Thomas, SDM, Nixon, M, Ogloff, JRP, Daffern, M. Crime and victimization among people with intellectual disability with and without comorbid mental illness. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2019; 32(5): 1088–95.Google Scholar

Department of Health. The Bradley Report: Lord Bradley’s review of people with mental health problems or learning disabilities in the criminal justice system. Available at: https://lx.iriss.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/The%20Bradley%20report.pdf.Google Scholar

Hellenbach, M, Karatzias, T, Brown, M. Intellectual disabilities among prisoners: prevalence and mental and physical health comorbidities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2016; 30(2): 230–41.Google Scholar

Fogden, B, Thomas, S, Daffern, M, Ogloff, J, Crime and victimisation in people with intellectual disability: a case linkage study. BMC Psychiatry 2016; 16: 170.Google Scholar

Cooper, SA, Melville, CA, Einfeld, SL. Psychiatric diagnosis, intellectual disabilities and diagnostic criteria for psychiatric disorders for use with adults with learning disabilities/mental retardation (DC-LD). Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2003; 47(1): 3–15.Google Scholar

Sheehan, R, Hassiotis, A, Walters, K, Osborn, D, Strydom, A, Horsfall, L. Mental illness, challenging behaviour, and psychotropic drug prescribing in people with intellectual disability: UK population based cohort study. BMJ 2015; 351: h4326.Google Scholar

Hassiotis, A, Gazizova, D, Akinlonu, L, Bebbington, P, Meltzer, H, Strydom, A. Psychiatric morbidity in prisoners with intellectual disabilities: analysis of prison survey data for England and Wales. British Journal of Psychiatry 2011; 199(2): 156–7.Google Scholar

Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J, Underwood, L, Forrester, A, Hayward, H, Sabet, J, et al. Characteristics of prisoners with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2017; 61(12): 1185–95.Google Scholar

Salekin, KL, Olley, JG, Hedge, KA. Offenders with intellectual disability: characteristics, prevalence, and issues in forensic assessment. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2010; 3(2): 97–116.Google Scholar

Marshall-Tate, K, Chaplin, E, Ali, S, Hardy, S. Learning disabilities: supporting people in the criminal justice system. 2019. Available at: www.nursingtimes.net/roles/learning-disability-nurses/learning-disabilities-supporting-people-in-the-criminal-justice-system-17-06-2019.Google Scholar

Scott, H, Havercamp, S. Comparison of self- and proxy report of mental health symptoms in people with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2018; 11(2): 143–56.Google Scholar

McKinnon, I, Thorp, J, Grubin, D. Improving the detection of detainees with suspected intellectual disability in police custody. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities 2015; 9(4): 174–85.Google Scholar

HMI Probation and HMI Prisons A joint inspection of the treatment of offenders with learning disabilities in the criminal justice system – phase 2 in custody and the community. 2015. Available at: www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk>/cjji/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/03/Learning-Disabilities-phase-two-report.pdf./cjji/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/03/Learning-Disabilities-phase-two-report.pdf.>Google Scholar

Talbot, J. Experiences of the criminal justice system by prisoners with learning disabilities. 2008. Available at: www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/prisoners-voices-experiences-criminal-justice-system-prisoners-0 Google Scholar

O’Brien, G, Taylor, J, Lindsay, W, Holland, A, Carson, D, Steptoe, L, et al. A multi‐centre study of adults with learning disabilities referred to services for antisocial or offending behaviour: demographic, individual, offending and service characteristics. Journal of Learning Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2010; 1(2): 5–15.Google Scholar

NHSDigital. Learning disability services monthly statistics. December 2020. Available at: https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/learning-disability-services-statistics/learning-disability-services-monthly-statistics-at-november-2020-mhsds-september-2020-final.Google Scholar

Alexander, R, Hiremath, A, Chester, V, Green, F, Gunaratna, I, Hoare, S. Evaluation of treatment outcomes from a medium secure unit for people with intellectual disability. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities 2011; 5(1): 22–32.Google Scholar

Wooster, L, McCarthy, J, Chaplin, E. Outcomes of an inner city forensic intellectual disability service. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour 2018; 9(1): 1–8.Google Scholar

Klimecki, MR, Jenkinson, J, Wilson, L. A study of recidivism among offenders with an intellectual disability. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities 2009; 19: 209–19.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists. Forensic care pathways for adults with intellectual disability involved with the criminal justice. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/docs/default-source/members/faculties/forensic-psychiatry/forensic-fr-id-04.pdf?sfvrsn=2fdf0def_2.Google Scholar

Levy, SE, Mandell, DS, Schultz, RT. Autism. Lancet 2009; 374(9701): 1627–38.Google Scholar

Bradley, E, Bolton, P. Episodic psychiatric disorders in teenagers with learning disabilities with and without autism. British Journal of Psychiatry 2006; 189: 361–6.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists. The psychiatric management of autism in adults College Report 228. 2020. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/improving-care/campaigning-for-better-mental-health-policy/college-reports/2020-college-reports/cr228.Google Scholar

Selten, JP, Lundberg, M, Rai, D, Magnusson, C. Risks for nonaffective psychotic disorder and bipolar disorder in young people with autism spectrum disorder: a population-based study. JAMA Psychiatry 2015; 72(5): 483–9.Google Scholar

Lugo-Marin, J, Rodríguez-Franco, MA, Mahtani Chugani, V, Magán Maganto, M, Díez Villoria, E, Canal Bedia, R. Prevalence of psychiatric disorder in adults with ASD spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Research in ASD Spectrum Disorders 2019; 59: 22–33.Google Scholar

McCarthy, J, Hemmings, C, Kravariti, E, Dworzynski, K, Holt, G, Bouras, N, Tsakanikos, E. Challenging behaviour and co-morbid psychopathology in adults with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2010; 31: 362–6.Google Scholar

Carey, C, Clear, D, Robertson, D. Mental health morbidity across the lifespan. In Chaplin, E, Spain, D, McCarthy, J, eds., A Clinician’s Guide to Mental Health Conditions in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2020: 24–39.Google Scholar

Chaplin, E, McCarthy, J. Substance use disorders. In Chaplin, E, Spain, D, McCarthy, J, eds., A Clinician’s Guide to Mental Health Conditions in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2020: 373–86.Google Scholar

Arseneault, L, Moffitt, TE, Caspi, A, Taylor, PJ, Silva, PA. Mental disorders and violence in a total birth cohort: results from the Dunedin Study. Archives of General Psychiatry 2000; 57(10): 979–86.Google Scholar

Langstrom, N, Grann, M, Ruchkin, V, Sjostedt, G Fazel, S. Risk factors for violent offending in autism spectrum disorder: a national study of hospitalised individuals. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; 24(8): 1358–70.Google Scholar

Allen, D, Evans, C, Hider, A, Hawkins, S, Pecket, H, Morgan, H. Offending behaviour in adults with Asperger syndrome. Journal of ASD and Developmental Disorders 2008; 38(4): 748–58.Google Scholar

Newman, SS, Ghaziuddin, M. Violent crime in Asperger syndrome: the role of psychiatric comorbidity. Journal of ASD and Developmental Disorders 2008; 38(10): 1848.Google Scholar

Wachtel, LE, Shorter, E. ASD plus psychosis: a ‘one–two punch’ risk for tragic violence? Medical Hypotheses 2013; 81: 404–9.Google Scholar

Haw, C, Radley, J, Cooke, L. Characteristics of male autistic spectrum patients in low security: are they different from non-autistic low secure patients? Journal of Intellectual Disability & Offending Behaviour 2013; 4(1/2): 24–32.Google Scholar

Søndenaa, E, Helverschou, SB, Steindal, K, Rasmussen, K, Nilsson, B, Nøttestad, JA. Violence and sexual offending behaviour in people with autism spectrum disorder who have undergone a forensic examination. Psychological Reports: Disability & Trauma 2014; 115(1): 32–43.Google Scholar

Wilens, T, Biederman, J, Faraone, S, Martelon, M, Westerberg, D, Spencer, T. Presenting ADHD symptoms, subtypes, and comorbid disorders in clinically referred adults with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2009; 70(11): 1557–62.Google Scholar

Milberger, S, Biederman, J, Faraone, SV, Murphy, J, Tsuang, ST. ADHD and comorbid disorders: issues of overlapping symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry 1995; 152(12): 1793–9.Google Scholar

Boland, H, DiSalvo, M, Fried, R, Woodworth, KY, Wilens, T, Faraone, SV, et al. A literature review and meta-analysis on the effects of ADHD medications on functional outcomes. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2020; 123: 21–30.Google Scholar

Lichtenstein, P, Halldner, L, Zetterqvist, J, Sjölander, A, Serlachius, E, Fazel, S, et al. Medication for attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder and criminality. New England Journal of Medicine 2012; 367(21): 2006–14.Google Scholar

Brus, MJ, Solanto, MV, Goldberg, JF. Adult ADHD vs. bipolar disorder in the DSM-5 era: a challenging differentiation for clinicians. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 2014; 20(6): 428–37.Google Scholar

Masi, G, Perugi, G, Toni, C, Millepiedi, S, Mucci, M, Bertini, N, Pfanner, C. ADHD–bipolar comorbidity in children and adolescents. Bipolar Disorders 2006; 8(4): 378–81.Google Scholar

Wilens, TE. ADHD and the substance use disorders. In Buitelaar, JK, Kan, CC, Asherson, P, eds., ADHD in Adults: Characterisation, Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge University Press, 2011: 174–90.Google Scholar

Kessler, RC, Adler, L, Barkley, R, Biederman, J, Conners, CK, Demler, O, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006; 163(4): 716–23.Google Scholar

Schatz, DB, Rostain, AL. ADHD and comorbid anxiety: a review of the current literature. Journal of Attention Disorders 2006; 10(2): 141–9.Google Scholar

Van Dijk, FE, Anckasaeter, H. ADHD, personality and its disorders. In Buitelaar, JK, Kan, CC, Asherson, P, eds., ADHD in Adults: Characterisation, Diagnosis and Treatment. Cambridge University Press, 2011: 174–90.Google Scholar

Hofvander, B, Ossowski, B, Lundstrom, S, Anckarsaeter, H. Continuity of aggressive antisocial behaviour from childhood to adulthood: the question of phenotype definition. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 2009; 32(4): 224–34.Google Scholar

Fossati, A, Novella, I, Donati, D, Donini, M, Maffei, C. History of childhood ADHD symptoms and borderline personality disorder: a controlled study. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2002; 43: 369–77.Google Scholar

Young, S, Moss, D, Sedgwick, O, Fridman, M, Hodgkins, P. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in incarcerated populations. Psychological Medicine 2015; 45(2): 247–58.Google Scholar

Young, S, González, RA, Wolff, K, Xenitidis, K, Mutch, L, Malet-Lambert, I, et al. Substance and alcohol misuse, drug pathways, and offending behaviors in association with ADHD in prison inmates. Journal of Attention Disorders 2020; 24(13): 1905–13.Google Scholar

Young, S, Wells, J, Gudjonsson, GH. Predictors of offending among prisoners: the role of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance use. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2011; 25(11): 1524–32.Google Scholar

Mannuzza, S, Klein, RG, Moulton, JL. Lifetime criminality among boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a prospective follow-up study into adulthood using official arrest records. Psychiatry Research 2008; 160(3): 237–46.Google Scholar

Vélez-Pastrana, MC, González, RA, Ramos-Fernández, A, Padilla, RR, Levin, FR, García, CA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in prisoners: increased substance use disorder severity and psychiatric comorbidity. European Addiction Research 2020; 26(4–5): 179–90.Google Scholar

Gudjonsson, GH, Sigurdsson, JF, Sigfusdottir, ID, Young, S. A national epidemiological study of offending and its relationship with ADHD symptoms and associated risk factors. Journal of Attention Disorders 2014; 18(1): 3–13.Google Scholar

Mohr-Jensen, C, Bisgaard, CM, Boldsen, SK, Steinhausen, HC. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in childhood and adolescence and the risk of crime in young adulthood in a Danish nationwide study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2019; 58(4): 443–52.Google Scholar

Eisenbarth, H, Alpers, GW, Conzelmann, A, Jacob, CP, Weyers, P, Pauli, P. Psychopathic traits in adult ADHD patients. Personality and Individual Differences 2008; 45(6): 468–72.Google Scholar

Karlén, MH, Nilsson, T, Wallinius, M, Billstedt, E, Hofvander, B. A Bad Start: The combined effects of early onset substance use and ADHD and CD on criminality patterns, substance abuse and psychiatric comorbidity among young violent offenders. Journal for Person-Oriented Research 2020; 6(1): 39–55.Google Scholar

Stickley, A, Koposov, R, Koyanagi, A, Inoue, Y, Ruchkin, V. ADHD and depressive symptoms in adolescents: the role of community violence exposure. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2019; 54(6): 683–91.Google Scholar

Book contents

Section 1 - An Overview: Definitions, Epidemiology and Policy Issues

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

Book contents

Section 1 - An Overview: Definitions, Epidemiology and Policy Issues

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive