Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-5f56664f6-p8hl4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-08T01:26:54.097Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

30 - Bacterial sepsis in the neonate

from Section 4 - Specific conditions associated with fetal and neonatal brain injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 January 2010

By
Hayley A. Gans
Edited by
David K. Stevenson ,
William E. Benitz ,
Philip Sunshine ,
Susan R. Hintz  and
Maurice L. Druzin
David K. Stevenson
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
William E. Benitz
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Philip Sunshine
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Susan R. Hintz
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Maurice L. Druzin
Affiliation:
Stanford University School of Medicine, California
Get access

Summary

Introduction

Bacterial sepsis in the neonate is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. More than half of all admissions to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are for infants with or who are at risk of developing sepsis. Diagnosis is challenging since clinical signs are non-specific, supportive rapid screening laboratory assays lack good positive predictive value (PPV), and the entity carries a high mortality rate. As a result, a conservative approach to these patients has evolved, with many infants who are not septic receiving antibiotics. This chapter will discuss the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of neonatal sepsis.

Meningitis accompanies sepsis in approximately one-quarter of cases of neonatal disease, and thus the two processes share a common etiology and pathogenesis. This chapter will cover only bacterial sepsis of the term infant, since meningitis is covered elsewhere (Chapter 31). Further, prematurity and residence in an intensive care unit are independent risk factors for bacterial sepsis that differ from sepsis in the term infant, and these will not be considered here. In addition, the emphasis of this chapter will be on early-onset neonatal disease, with less of a concentration on late-onset sepsis.

Type
Chapter
Information
Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury , pp. 331 - 346
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Freedman, RM, Ingram, DL, Gross, I, et al. A half century of neonatal sepsis at Yale: 1928 to 1978. Am J Dis Child 1981; 135: 140–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bizzarro, MJ, Dembry, LM, Baltimore, RS, et al. Changing patterns in neonatal Escherichia coli sepsis and ampicillin resistance in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Pediatrics 2008; 121: 689–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bizzarro, MJ, Raskind, C, Baltimore, RS, et al. Seventy-five years of neonatal sepsis at Yale: 1928–2003. Pediatrics 2005; 116: 595–602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gladstone, IM, Ehrenkranz, RA, Edberg, SC, et al. A ten-year review of neonatal sepsis and comparison with the previous fifty-year experience. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9: 819–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baltimore, RS, Huie, SM, Meek, JI, et al. Early-onset neonatal sepsis in the era of group B streptococcal prevention. Pediatrics 2001; 108: 1094–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, KT, Puopolo, KM, Eichenwald, EC, et al. No increase in rates of early-onset neonatal sepsis by antibiotic-resistant group B Streptococcus in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 192: 1167–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daley, AJ, Isaacs, D. Ten-year study on the effect of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis on early onset group B streptococcal and Escherichia coli neonatal sepsis in Australasia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 630–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, RK, Jamie, WE, Sterner, D, et al. Intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis and early-onset neonatal sepsis patterns. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2003; 11: 221–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, MR, Schrag, SJ, Schuchat, A. Effects of intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis for prevention of group-B-streptococcal disease on the incidence and ecology of early-onset neonatal sepsis. Lancet Infect Dis 2003; 3: 201–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrag, SJ, Stoll, BJ. Early-onset neonatal sepsis in the era of widespread intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25: 939–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, CJ, Halsey, NA, Schuchat, A. 1997 AAP guidelines for prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease. Pediatrics 1999; 103: 701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eichenwald, EC. Perinatally transmitted neonatal bacterial infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997; 11: 223–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyde, TB, Hilger, TM, Reingold, A, et al. Trends in incidence and antimicrobial resistance of early-onset sepsis: population-based surveillance in San Francisco and Atlanta. Pediatrics 2002; 110: 690–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schrag, S, Schuchat, A. Prevention of neonatal sepsis. Clin Perinatol 2005; 32: 601–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuchat, A, Zywicki, SS, Dinsmoor, MJ, et al. Risk factors and opportunities for prevention of early-onset neonatal sepsis: a multicenter case–control study. Pediatrics 2000; 105: 21–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vesikari, T, Janas, M, Gronroos, P, et al. Neonatal septicaemia. Arch Dis Child 1985; 60: 542–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, MS, Nizet, V, Baker, CJ. Group B streptococcal infections. In Remington, JS, Klein, JO, Wilson, CB, et al., eds., Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant, 6th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders, 2006: 404–64.Google Scholar
Lukacs, SL, Schoendorf, KC. National Estimates of Newborn Sepsis Rates in the United States, 1990–2001. Salt Lake City, UT: Society for Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiologic Research, 2004.Google Scholar
Lukacs, SL, Schoendorf, KC, Schuchat, A. Trends in sepsis-related neonatal mortality in the United States, 1985–1998. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 599–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrag, SJ, Hadler, JL, Arnold, KE, et al. Risk factors for invasive, early-onset Escherichia coli infections in the era of widespread intrapartum antibiotic use. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 570–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arachaisri, T, Ballow, M. Developmental immunology of the newborn. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 1999; 19: 253–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, DB, Wilson, CB. Developmental immunology and role of the host defenses in neonatal susceptibility to infection. In: Remington, JS, Klein, JO, Wilson, CB, et al., Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant, 6th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders, 2006: 88–210.Google Scholar
Georgeson, GD, Szony, BJ, Streitman, K, et al. Natural killer cell cytotoxicity is deficient in newborns with sepsis and recurrent infections. Eur J Pediatr 2001; 160: 478–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, DC, Edgar, JD. Predictors of bacterial infection in neonates. J Pediatr 1997; 130: 166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herbst, A, Kallen, K. Time between membrane rupture and delivery and septicemia in term neonates. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 110: 612–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, KT, Ringer, S, Cohen, AP, et al. The role of intrapartum fever in identifying asymptomatic term neonates with early-onset neonatal sepsis. J Perinatol 2002; 22: 653–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrag, SJ, Zell, ER, Lynfield, R, et al. A population-based comparison of strategies to prevent early-onset group B streptococcal disease in neonates. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 233–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Towers, CV, Suriano, K, Asrat, T. The capture rate of at-risk term newborns for early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis determined by a risk factor approach. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 181: 1243–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yancey, MK, Duff, P, Kubilis, P, et al. Risk factors for neonatal sepsis. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 87: 188–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glasgow, TS, Young, PC, Wallin, J, et al. Association of intrapartum antibiotic exposure and late-onset serious bacterial infections in infants. Pediatrics 2005; 116: 696–702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denniston, S, Riordan, FA. Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia in children and neonates: a 10 year retrospective review. J Infect 2006; 53: 387–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakim, H, Mylotte, JM, Faden, H. Morbidity and mortality of staphylococcal bacteremia in children. Am J Infect Control 2007; 35: 102–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schiano, MA, Hauth, JC, Gilstrap, LC. Second-stage fetal tachycardia and neonatal infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1984; 148: 779–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soman, M, Green, B, Daling, J. Risk factors for early neonatal sepsis. Am J Epidemiol 1985; 121: 712–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerdes, JS. Diagnosis and management of bacterial infections in the neonate. Pediatr Clin North Am 2004; 51: 939–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Escobar, GJ, Li, DK, Armstrong, MA, et al. Neonatal sepsis workups in infants ≥ 2000 grams at birth: a population-based study. Pediatrics 2000; 106: 256–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, CJ. Group B streptococcal infections. Clin Perinatol 1997; 24: 59–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ottolini, MC, Lundgren, K, Mirkinson, LJ, et al. Utility of complete blood count and blood culture screening to diagnose neonatal sepsis in the asymptomatic at risk newborn. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003; 22: 430–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bomela, HN, Ballot, , Cory, BJ, et al. Use of C-reactive protein to guide duration of empiric antibiotic therapy in suspected early neonatal sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000; 19: 531–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Townsend, TR, Shapiro, M, Rosner, B, et al. Use of antimicrobial drugs in general hospitals. I. Description of population and definition of methods. J Infect Dis 1979; 139: 688–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paerregaard, A, Bruun, B, Andersen, GE, et al. No advantage of capillary blood compared with venous blood for culture in neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 8: 659–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiswell, TE, Hachey, WE. Multiple site blood cultures in the initial evaluation for neonatal sepsis during the first week of life. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991; 10: 365–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarkar, S, Bhagat, I, DeCristofaro, JD, et al. A study of the role of multiple site blood cultures in the evaluation of neonatal sepsis. J Perinatol 2006; 26: 18–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jardine, L, Davies, MW, Faoagali, J. Incubation time required for neonatal blood cultures to become positive. J Paediatr Child Health 2006; 42: 797–802.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, Y, Qunibi, M, Neal, TJ, et al. Time to positivity of neonatal blood cultures. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2001; 85: F182–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visser, VE, Hall, RT. Urine culture in the evaluation of suspected neonatal sepsis. J Pediatr 1979; 94: 635–8.Google ScholarPubMed
DiGeronimo, RJ. Lack of efficacy of the urine culture as part of the initial workup of suspected neonatal sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992; 11: 764–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Evans, ME, Schaffner, W, Federspiel, CF, et al. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value of body surface cultures in a neonatal intensive care unit. JAMA 1988; 259: 248–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kite, P, Millar, MR, Gorham, P, et al. Comparison of five tests used in diagnosis of neonatal bacteraemia. Arch Dis Child 1988; 63: 639–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schouten-Van Meeteren, NY, Rietveld, A, Moolenaar, AJ, et al. Influence of perinatal conditions on C-reactive protein production. J Pediatr 1992; 120: 621–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benitz, WE, Han, MY, Madan, A, et al. Serial serum C-reactive protein levels in the diagnosis of neonatal infection. Pediatrics 1998; 102: E41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaye, DL, Waites, KB. Clinical applications of C-reactive protein in pediatrics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997; 16: 735–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiesa, C, Signore, F, Assumma, M, et al. Serial measurements of C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 in the immediate postnatal period: reference intervals and analysis of maternal and perinatal confounders. Clin Chem 2001; 47: 1016–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Laborada, G, Rego, M, Jain, A, et al. Diagnostic value of cytokines and C-reactive protein in the first 24 hours of neonatal sepsis. Am J Perinatol 2003; 20: 491–501.Google ScholarPubMed
Bhandari, V, Wang, C, Rinder, C, et al. Hematologic profile of sepsis in neonates: neutrophil CD64 as a diagnostic marker. Pediatrics 2008; 121: 129–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kocabas, E, Sarikcioglu, A, Aksaray, N, et al. Role of procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Turk J Pediatr 2007; 49: 7–20.Google Scholar
Ng, PC, Li, G, Chui, KM, et al. Neutrophil CD64 is a sensitive diagnostic marker for early-onset neonatal infection. Pediatr Res 2004; 56: 796–803.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santana Reyes, C, Garcia-Munoz, F, Reyes, D, et al. Role of cytokines (interleukin-1β, 6, 8, tumour necrosis factor-α, and soluble receptor of interleukin-2) and C-reactive protein in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Acta Paediatr 2003; 92: 221–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franz, AR, Steinbach, G, Kron, M, et al. Reduction of unnecessary antibiotic therapy in newborn infants using interleukin-8 and C-reactive protein as markers of bacterial infections. Pediatrics 1999; 104: 447–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nupponen, I, Andersson, S, Jarvenpaa, AL, et al. Neutrophil CD11b expression and circulating interleukin-8 as diagnostic markers for early-onset neonatal sepsis. Pediatrics 2001; 108: E12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weirich, E, Rabin, RL, Maldonado, Y, et al. Neutrophil CD11b expression as a diagnostic marker for early-onset neonatal infection. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 445–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edgar, JD, Wilson, DC, McMillan, SA, et al. Predictive value of soluble immunological mediators in neonatal infection. Clin Sci (Lond) 1994; 87: 165–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennon, C, Overturf, G, Bessman, S, et al. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor as a marker for bacterial infection in neonates. J Pediatr 1996; 128: 765–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starr, SE. Antimicrobial therapy of bacterial sepsis in the newborn infant. J Pediatr 1985; 106: 1043–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Backes, RJ, Rouse, MS, Henry, NK, et al. Activity of penicillin combined with an aminoglycoside against group B streptococci in vitro and in experimental endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986; 18: 491–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenson, HB, Pollock, BH. Meta-analyses of the effectiveness of intravenous immune globulin for prevention and treatment of neonatal sepsis. Pediatrics 1997; 99: E2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manroe, BL, Rosenfeld, CR, Weinberg, AG, et al. The differential leukocyte count in the assessment and outcome of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal disease. J Pediatr 1977; 91: 632–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schibler, KR, Osborne, KA, Leung, LY, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor administration to newborn infants with neutropenia and clinical signs of early-onset sepsis. Pediatrics 1998; 102: 6–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillan, ER, Christensen, RD, Suen, Y, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor administration in newborn infants with presumed sepsis: significant induction of peripheral and bone marrow neutrophilia. Blood 1994; 84: 1427–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Bilgin, K, Yaramis, A, Haspolat, K, et al. A randomized trial of granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor in neonates with sepsis and neutropenia. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 36–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Bennet, R, Eriksson, M, Zetterstrom, R. Neonatal septicemia: comparison of onset and risk factors during three consecutive 5-year periods. Acta Paediatr Scand 1987; 76: 361–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mok, PM, Reilly, BJ, Ash, JM. Osteomyelitis in the neonate: clinical aspects and the role of radiography and scintigraphy in diagnosis and management. Radiology 1982; 145: 677–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennet, R, Bergdahl, S, Eriksson, M, et al. The outcome of neonatal septicemia during fifteen years. Acta Paediatr Scand 1989; 78: 40–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alfven, G, Bergqvist, G, Bolme, P, et al. Longterm follow-up of neonatal septicemia. Acta Paediatr Scand 1978; 67: 769–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sehdev, HM, Stamilio, DM, Macones, GA, et al. Predictive factors for neonatal morbidity in neonates with an umbilical arterial cord pH less than 7.00. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 177: 1030–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, YW. Systematic review of chorioamnionitis and cerebral palsy. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002; 8: 25–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stray-Pedersen, B, Bergan, T, Hafstad, A, et al. Vaginal disinfection with chlorhexidine during childbirth. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999; 12: 245–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taha, TE, Biggar, RJ, Broadhead, RL, et al. Effect of cleansing the birth canal with antiseptic solution on maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality in Malawi: clinical trial. BMJ 1997; 315: 216–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuchat, A. Group B streptococcal disease: from trials and tribulations to triumph and trepidation. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 751–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuchat, A. Epidemiology of group B streptococcal disease in the United States: shifting paradigms. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998; 11: 497–513.Google Scholar
Davies, HD, Adair, C, McGeer, A, et al. Antibodies to capsular polysaccharides of group B Streptococcus in pregnant Canadian women: relationship to colonization status and infection in the neonate. J Infect Dis 2001; 184: 285–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumberg, HM, Stephens, DS, Modansky, M, et al. Invasive group B streptococcal disease: the emergence of serotype V. J Infect Dis 1996; 173: 365–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klegerman, ME, Boyer, KM, Papierniak, CK, et al. Estimation of the protective level of human IgG antibody to the type-specific polysaccharide of group B Streptococcus type Ia. J Infect Dis 1983; 148: 648–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuchat, A, Deaver-Robinson, K, Plikaytis, BD, et al. Multistate case–control study of maternal risk factors for neonatal group B streptococcal disease. The Active Surveillance Study Group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994; 13: 623–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyer, KM, Gotoff, SP. Prevention of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal disease with selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1665–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Decreasing incidence of perinatal Group B streptococcal disease: United States, 1993–1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1997; 46: 473–7.
Whitney, CG, Plikaytis, BD, Gozansky, WS, et al. Prevention practices for perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a multi-state surveillance analysis. Neonatal Group B Streptococcal Disease Study Group. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89: 28–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a public health perspective. MMWR Recomm Rep 1996; 45: 1–24.
Schrag, S, Gorwitz, R, Fultz-Butts, K, et al. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease. Revised guidelines from CDC. MMWR Recomm Rep 2002; 51: 1–22.Google Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diminishing racial disparities in early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal disease: United States, 2000–2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004; 53: 502–5.
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Perinatal group B streptococcal disease after universal screening recommendations: United States, 2003–2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56: 701–5.
Ekelund, K, Konradsen, HB. Invasive group B streptococcal disease in infants: a 19-year nationwide study. Serotype distribution, incidence and recurrent infection. Epidemiol Infect 2004; 132: 1083–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, V, Bowes, WA. Perinatal group B streptococcal infections across intact amniotic membranes. J Reprod Med 1988; 33: 445–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Dillon, HC, Khare, S, Gray, BM. Group B streptococcal carriage and disease: a 6-year prospective study. J Pediatr 1987; 110: 31–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trager, JD, Martin, JM, Barbadora, K, et al. Probable community acquisition of group B Streptococcus in an infant with late-onset disease: demonstration using field inversion gel electrophoresis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996; 150: 766–8.Google Scholar
Ancona, RJ, Ferrieri, P, Williams, PP. Maternal factors that enhance the acquisition of group-B streptococci by newborn infants. J Med Microbiol 1980; 13: 273–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Regan, JA, Klebanoff, MA, Nugent, RP. The epidemiology of group B streptococcal colonization in pregnancy. Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 77: 604–10.Google Scholar
Curtis, J, Kim, G, Wehr, NB, et al. Group B streptococcal phospholipid causes pulmonary hypertension. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100: 5087–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hospital-based policies for prevention of perinatal Group B streptococcal disease: United States, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000; 49: 936–40.
Fernandez, M, Hickman, ME, Baker, CJ. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of group B streptococci isolated between 1992 and 1996 from patients with bacteremia or meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 1517–19.Google ScholarPubMed
Glass, P, Wagner, AE, Papero, PH, et al. Neurodevelopmental status at age five years of neonates treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr 1995; 127: 447–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
,Committee on Obstetric Practice, American College of Obstetrics and Gynecologists. Prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease in newborns. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1996; 54: 197–205.
,American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases and Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Revised guidelines for prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal (GBS) infection. Pediatrics 1997; 99: 489–96.
Rosenstein, NE, Schuchat, A. Opportunities for prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a multistate surveillance analysis. The Neonatal Group B Streptococcal Disease Study Group. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 90: 901–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puopolo, KM, Madoff, LC, Eichenwald, EC. Early-onset group B streptococcal disease in the era of maternal screening. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 1240–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
deCueto, M, Sanchez, M, Sampedro, A, et al. Relationship between timing of intrapartum ampicillin administration and its effectiveness in preventing vertical transmission of group B streptococci. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 112–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Infectious Diseases and Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Guidelines for prevention of group B streptococcal (GBS) infection by chemoprophylaxis. Pediatrics 1992; 90: 775–8.
Gotoff, SP, Boyer, KM. Prevention of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Pediatrics 1997; 99: 866–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, JD, Cushion, NB. Prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease: another look at single-dose penicillin at birth. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 87: 692–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benitz, WE. The neonatal group B streptococcal debate. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 494–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieu, TA, Mohle-Boetani, JC, Ray, GT, et al. Neonatal group B streptococcal infection in a managed care population. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 92: 21–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yow, MD, Mason, EO, Leeds, LJ, et al. Ampicillin prevents intrapartum transmission of group B streptococcus. JAMA 1979; 241: 1245–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heim, K, Alge, A, Marth, C. Anaphylactic reaction to ampicillin and severe complication in the fetus. Lancet 1991; 337: 859–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Towers, CV, Carr, MH, Padilla, G, et al. Potential consequences of widespread antepartal use of ampicillin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179: 879–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pylipow, M, Gaddis, M, Kinney, JS. Selective intrapartum prophylaxis for group B streptococcus colonization: management and outcome of newborns. Pediatrics 1994; 93: 631–5.Google Scholar
Davis, RL, Hasselquist, MB, Cardenas, V, et al. Introduction of the new Centers for Disease Control and Prevention group B streptococcal prevention guideline at a large West Coast health maintenance organization. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184: 603–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaureguy, F, Carton, M, Panel, P, et al. Effects of intrapartum penicillin prophylaxis on intestinal bacterial colonization in infants. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 5184–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kasper, DL, Paoletti, LC, Wessels, MR, et al. Immune response to type III group B streptococcal polysaccharide–tetanus toxoid conjugate vaccine. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 2308–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, CJ, Paoletti, LC, Rench, MA, et al. Immune response of healthy women to 2 different group B streptococcal type V capsular polysaccharide–protein conjugate vaccines. J Infect Dis 2004; 189: 1103–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guttormsen, HK, Liu, Y, Paoletti, LC. Functional activity of antisera to group B streptococcal conjugate vaccines measured with an opsonophagocytosis assay and HL-60 effector cells. Hum Vaccin 2008; 4: 370–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buccato, S, Maione, D, Rinaudo, CD, et al. Use of Lactococcus lactis expressing pili from group B Streptococcus as a broad-coverage vaccine against streptococcal disease. J Infect Dis 2006; 194: 331–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosini, R, Rinaudo, CD, Soriani, M, et al. Identification of novel genomic islands coding for antigenic pilus-like structures in Streptococcus agalactiae. Mol Microbiol 2006; 61: 126–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bingen, E, Picard, B, Brahimi, N, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of Escherichia coli strains causing neonatal meningitis suggests horizontal gene transfer from a predominant pool of highly virulent B2 group strains. J Infect Dis 1998; 177: 642–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarff, LD, McCracken, GH, Schiffer, MS, et al. Epidemiology of Escherichia coli K1 in healthy and diseased newborns. Lancet 1975; 1: 1099–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCracken, GH, Sarff, LD, Glode, MP, et al. Relation between Escherichia coli K1 capsular polysaccharide antigen and clinical outcome in neonatal meningitis. Lancet 1974; 2: 246–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerina, NG, Kessler, TW, Guerina, VJ, et al. The role of pili and capsule in the pathogenesis of neonatal infection with Escherichia coli K1. J Infect Dis 1983; 148: 395–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, SW, Hammill, HA, Hull, RA. Virulence factors of Escherichia coli isolated from female reproductive tract infections and neonatal sepsis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2001; 9: 203–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayor-Lynn, K, Gonzalez-Quintero, VH, O'Sullivan, MJ, et al. Comparison of early-onset neonatal sepsis caused by Escherichia coli and group B Streptococcus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 192: 1437–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alarcon, A, Pena, P, Salas, S, et al. Neonatal early onset Escherichia coli sepsis: trends in incidence and antimicrobial resistance in the era of intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 295–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charles, D, Larsen, B. Streptococcal puerperal sepsis and obstetric infections: a historical perspective. Rev Infect Dis 1986; 8: 411–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chuang, I, Beneden, C, Beall, B, et al. Population-based surveillance for postpartum invasive group A Streptococcus infections, 1995–2000. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 665–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miyairi, I, Berlingieri, D, Protic, J, et al. Neonatal invasive group A streptococcal disease: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004; 23: 161–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, D, Leibovitz, E, Shinnwell, ES, et al. Neonatal sepsis caused by Streptococcus pyogenes: resurgence of an old etiology? Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999; 18: 479–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macris, MH, Hartman, N, Murray, B, et al. Studies of the continuing susceptibility of group A streptococcal strains to penicillin during eight decades. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998; 17: 377–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, EL, Johnson, DR, Del Rosario, MC, et al. Susceptibility of group A beta-hemolytic streptococci to thirteen antibiotics: examination of 301 strains isolated in the United States between 1994 and 1997. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999; 18: 1069–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimbelman, J, Palmer, A, Todd, J. Improved outcome of clindamycin compared with beta-lactam antibiotic treatment for invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999; 18: 1096–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norrby-Teglund, A, Ihendyane, N, Kansal, R, et al. Relative neutralizing activity in polyspecific IgM, IgA, and IgG preparations against group A streptococcal superantigens. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 1175–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobson, SR, Baker, CJ. Enterococcal sepsis in neonates: features by age at onset and occurrence of focal infection. Pediatrics 1990; 85: 165–71.Google ScholarPubMed
McNeeley, DF, Saint-Louis, F, Noel, GJ. Neonatal enterococcal bacteremia: an increasingly frequent event with potentially untreatable pathogens. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996; 15: 800–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, BE. The life and times of the Enterococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990; 3: 46–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×