Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T01:23:14.239Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Identifying Risk and Protective Factors for Healthy Child Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
Arnold Sameroff
Edited by
Alison Clarke-Stewart  and
Judy Dunn
Arnold Sameroff
Affiliation:
Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Michigan, U.S.
Alison Clarke-Stewart
Affiliation:
University of California, Irvine
Judy Dunn
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, London
Get access

Summary

Developmental problems of youth are a major social problem in the United States, with approximately 21 percent of 9- to 17-year-old children having diagnosable disorders (Shaffer et al., 1996). Although many of these have minimal impairment, four million children representing 11 percent of the population have significant impairment and another 4 percent have extreme impairment (Surgeon General, 1999). In an examination of how many children are at risk for mental disorders, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004) reported that during the previous 12 months, 29 percent of high school children felt blue or hopeless, 17 percent had considered suicide, and 9 percent had made an attempt. In terms of aggression, 33 percent had been in a physical fight and, in the year 2000 alone, 1.7 million youth were arrested. Academic problems in the United States were equally serious. Seventy percent of fourth graders were below proficiency levels in both reading and math, and 15 percent of adolescents dropped out of school before graduation. Although the majority of youth do not have such problems, the number who do is substantial. Reducing these numbers requires a clear understanding of the causes of these childhood problems. One of the clear correlates of increasing childhood problems is the declining quality of the child-family environment.

Concurrent with the high level of problems among children, family resources for coping with these problems have diminished in the United States.

Type
Chapter
Information
Families Count
Effects on Child and Adolescent Development
 , pp. 53 - 76
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Baldwin, A. L., Baldwin, C., & Cole, R. E. (1990). Stress-resistant families and stress-resistant children. In Rolf, J. E. (Ed.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 257–280). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumrind, D. (1972). An exploratory study of socialization effects on black children: Some black-white comparisons. Child Development, 43, 261–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In Husten, T. & Postlethwaite, T. N. (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 1643–1647). New York: Elsevier Science.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). Do you believe in magic?: What we can expect from early childhood intervention programs. Social Policy Report, Society for Research in Child Development, 17(1).Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance – United States, 2003. Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report, 53, 1–96.
Chazan-Cohen, R., Raikes, H., Kresh, E., Love, J. M., Kisker, E. E., & Jerald, J. (2002). Early Head Start findings: Significant benefits for children and families. Head Start Bulletin, 74, 43–44.Google Scholar
Children's Defense Fund (2002). The state of children in America's union: A 2002 action guide to leave no child behind. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund.
Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. (Eds.) (1995). Developmental Psychopathology: Volume 2. Risk, disorder, and adaptation. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F., West, S., Hawkins, J. D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., Ramey, S. L., Shure, M. B., & Long, B. (1993). The science of prevention. American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coleman, J. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2002). The implementation of the Fast Track program: An example of large-scale prevention science efficacy trial. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 1–18.CrossRef
Damon, W., & Eisenberg, N. (Eds.) (1998). Handbook of child psychology (5th Ed.). Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Dawber, T. R. (1963). Coronary heart disease; morbidity in the Framingham Study and analysis of factors of risk. Bibliotheca Cardiologica, 13, 9–24.Google Scholar
Dawber, T. R. (1980). The Framingham Study: The epidemiology of coronary heart disease. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eccles, J. S., Early, D., Frasier, K., Belansky, E., & McCarthy, K. (1997). The relation of connection, regulation, and support for autonomy to adolescents' functioning. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 263–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A., Davidson, C. E., & Chazan, R. (1993). Psychosocial risk, attachment, and behavior problems among school-age children. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 389–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Lynsky, M. T. (1994). The childhoods of multiple problem adolescents: A 15-year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1123–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furstenberg, F. F. Jr., Cook, T., Eccles, J., Elder, G. H., & Sameroff, A. J. (1999). Managing to make it: Urban families and adolescent success. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry, 56, 127–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegan, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutman, L. M., Sameroff, A. J., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). The academic achievement of African-American students during early adolescence: An examination of multiple risk, promotive, and protective Factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 367–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gutman, L. M., Sameroff, A. J., & Cole, R. (2003). Academic growth curve trajectories from first to twelfth grades: Effects of multiple social risk and preschool child factors. Developmental Psychology, 39, 777–790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzales, N. A., Cauce, A. M., Friedman, R. J., & Mason, C. A. (1996). Family, peer, and neighborhood influences on academic achievement among African American adolescents: One-year prospective effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 365–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalil, A., & Kunz, J. (1999). First births among unmarried adolescent girls: Risk and protective factors. Social Work Research, 23(3), 197–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kannel, W. B., Dawber, T. R., Kagan, A., Revotskie, N., Stokes, J. I. (1961). Factors of risk in the development of coronary heart disease – six year follow-up experience: The Framingham Study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 55, 33–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S. (1999). Poverty and children's adjustment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (in press). Resilience in development): A synthesis of research across five decades. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd edition).New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., and Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (1999). Resilience comes of age: Reflections on the past and outlook
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McFarlane, A. H., Bellissimo, A., Norman, G. R. (1995). The role of family and peers in social self-efficacy: Links to depression in adolescence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 402–410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, P. B., & Eckenrode, J. (1992). Protective personality characteristics among adolescent victims of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 743–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (1999). Child care and mother-child interaction in the first three years of life. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1399–1413.CrossRef
Peck, S., Sameroff, A., Ramey, S., & Ramey, C. (April 1999). Transition into school: Ecological risks for adaptation and achievement in a national sample. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research and Development, Albuquerque, NM.
Resnick, M., Bearman, P., Blum, R., Bauman, K., Harris, K., Jones, J. J.. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the longitudinal study on adolescent health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823–832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children's responses to stress and disadvantage. In Kent, M. W. & Rolf, J. E. (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology: (Vol. 3): Social competence in children (pp. 49–74). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1982). Prevention of children's psychosocial disorders: Myths and substance. Pediatrics, 70, 883–894.Google ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1987). Continuities and discontinuities from infancy. In Osofsky, J. (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd Ed.) (pp. 1256–1296). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J. (2000). Ecological perspectives on developmental risk. In Osofsky, J. D. & Fitzgerald, H. E. (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of Infant Mental Health: Vol. 4. Infant Mental Health in Groups at Risk (pp. 4–33). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., Bartko, W. T., Baldwin, A., Baldwin, C., & Seifer, R. (1998). Family and social influences on the development of child competence. In Lewis, M. & Feiring, C. (Eds.), Families, risk, and competence. Mahwah, NJ: Erbaum.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2000). Transactional regulation: The developmental ecology of early intervention. In Shonkoff, J. P. & Meisels, S. J. (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 135–159). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sameroff, A., & Gutman, L. M. (2004). Contributions of risk research to the design of successful interventions. In Allen-Meares, P. & Fraser, M. W. (Eds.), Intervention with children and adolescents: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 9–26). New York: Pearson, Allyn, & Bacon.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A., Lewis, M., & Miller, S. (Eds.) (2000). Handbook of developmental psychopathology. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., McDonough, S. C., & Rosenblum, K. L. (Eds.) (2004). Treating early relationship problems: Infant, parent, and interaction therapies.New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., & Zax, M. (1982). Early development of children at risk for emotional disorder. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 47 (7, Serial No. 199).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Baldwin, A., & Baldwin, C. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: The influence of social and family risk factors. Child Development, 64, 80–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Barocas, B., Zax, M., & Greenspan, S. (1987a). IQ scores of 4-year-old children: Social-environmental risk factors. Pediatrics, 79, 343–350.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Zax, M., & Barocas, R. B. (1987b). Early indices of developmental risk: The Rochester Longitudinal Study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13, 383–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Dulcan, M. K., Davies, M., Piacentini, J., Schwab-Stone, M. E., Lahey, B. B., Bourdon, K., Jensen, P. S., Bird, H. R., Canino, G., & Regier, D. A. (1996). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC-2.3): Description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA Study. Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865–877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). Neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development.Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Stern, D. N. (1995). The motherhood constellation: A unified view of parent-infant psychotherapy.New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Zhang, Q., Kammen, W., & Maguin, E. (1993). The double edge of protective and risk factors for delinquency: interrelations and developmental patterns. Developmental Psychopathology, 5, 683–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
General, Surgeon (1999). Mental health: A report of the surgeon general. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1993). Child health USA 1992. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Weist, M.., Paskewitz, D., Proescher, E., & Flaherty, L. (1995). Urban youth under stress: Empirical identification of protective factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 705–721.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, K., Bruce, S., Farrell, A., & Kliewer, W. (1998). Impact of exposure to community violence on anxiety: A longitudinal study of family social support as a protective factor for urban children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 7, 187–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, S., Anderson, J., McGee, R., & Silva, P. A. (1990). Risk factors for behavioral and emotional disorder in preadolescent children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 413–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmerman, M., Ramirez-Valles, J., & Maton, K. (1998). Resilience among urban African American male adolescents: A study of the prospective effects of sociopolitical control on their mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 733–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×