Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-g4j75 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-07T15:33:57.384Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 8 - Evolutionary Perspectives on Depression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 September 2022

By
Markus J. Rantala  and
Severi Luoto
Edited by
Riadh Abed  and
Paul St John-Smith
Riadh Abed
Affiliation:
Mental Health Tribunals, Ministry of Justice, UK
Paul St John-Smith
Affiliation:
Hertfordshire Partnership University NHS Foundation Trust, UK
Get access

Summary

We propose that major depressive disorder is not a unitary disease. Instead, different triggering factors causing periods of low mood can give rise to different and sometimes even opposite symptom patterns. Some of the symptoms of depression are maladaptive; others may be psychobehavioural adaptions to solve the adaptive problem that triggered the depressive episode. It is therefore logical to subtype depressive episodes according to their triggering factors. In evolutionary psychiatry, depressive episodes can be classified into discrete subtypes that are induced by infection, long-term stress, loneliness, traumatic experience, hierarchy conflict, grief, romantic relationship dissolution, post-partum events, season, chemicals, somatic diseases and starvation. In hunter-gatherers and in people who have traditional lifestyles, periods of low mood only rarely turn into episodes that fulfil the diagnostic criteria of major depressive disorder. Modern lifestyles cause low-grade inflammation and an increased susceptibility to chronic stress, which introduce symptoms of sickness behaviour into reactive short-term mood changes. Therefore, features of contemporary environments may prevent the normalisation of mood after adverse life events, resulting in major depressive disorder. An evolutionary approach to depression helps to identify the factors in our environments and lifestyles that contribute to greater susceptibility to this debilitating disorder, which can inform both prevention and treatment of depression. We further propose that the treatment of major depressive disorder should be tailored according to the patient’s depression subtype, focusing on the root causes of the disorder rather than alleviating symptoms with drugs.

Keywords

chronic stressevolutionary psychiatryevolutionary psychologygut microbiotamajor depressive disorderMDDmismatch hypothesismood changeneuroinflammationstress responsivity
Type
Chapter
Information
Evolutionary Psychiatry
Current Perspectives on Evolution and Mental Health
 , pp. 117 - 133
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aardal-Eriksson, E., Eriksson, T. E., Thorell, L. H., 2001. Salivary cortisol, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and general health in the acute phase and during 9-month follow-up. Biological Psychiatry 50, 986–993.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Anders, S., Tanaka, M., Kinney, D. K., 2013. Depression as an evolutionary strategy for defense against infection. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 31, 9–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasson, A., Arborelius, L., Erlanson-Albertsson, C., Lekander, M., 2007. A putative role for cytokines in the impaired appetite in depression. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 21, 147–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, P. W., Thomson, J. A. Jr, 2009. The bright side of being blue: depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems. Psychological Review 116, 620–654.Google Scholar
Badcock, P., Davey, C., Whittle, S., Allen, N., Friston, K., 2017. The depressed brain: an evolutionary system theory. Trends in Cognitive Science 21, 182–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barron, A. B., Sovik, E., Cornish, J. L., 2010. The roles of dopamine and related compounds in reward-seeking behavior across animal phyla. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 4, 163.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., Vohs, K. D., 2003. Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science 4, 1–44.Google ScholarPubMed
Beal, C. C., Stuifbergen, A. K., Brown, A., 2007. Depression in multiple sclerosis: a longitudinal analysis. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 21, 181–191.Google Scholar
Berk, M., Williams, L. J., Jacka, F. N., O’Neil, A., Pasco, J. A., Moylan, S., Allen, N. B., Stuart, A. L., Hayley, A. C., Byrne, M. L., Maes, M., 2013. So depression is an inflammatory disease, but where does the inflammation come from? BMC Medicine 11, 200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bianchi, R., Verkuilen, J., Schonfeld, I. S., Hakanen, J. J., Jansson-Frojmark, M., Manzano-Garcia, G., Laurent, E., Meier, L. L., 2021. Is burnout a depressive condition? A 14-sample meta-analytic and bifactor analytic study. Clinical Psychological Science 9, 579–597.Google Scholar
Bicanic, I. A. E., Postma, R. M., Sinnema, G., De Roos, C., Olff, M., Van Wesel, F., Van de Putte, E. M., 2013. Salivary cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in adolescent rape victims with post traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38, 408–415.Google Scholar
Bode, A., Kushnick, G., 2021. Proximate and ultimate perspectives on romantic love. Frontiers in Psychology 12, 573123.Google Scholar
Bonaccorso, S., Puzella, A., Marino, V., Pasquini, M., Biondi, M., Artini, M., Almerighi, C., Levrero, M., Egyed, B., Bosmans, E., Meltzer, H. Y., Maes, M., 2001. Immunotherapy with interferon-alpha in patients affected by chronic hepatitis C induces an intercorrelated stimulation of the cytokine network and an increase in depressive and anxiety symptoms. Psychiatry Research 105, 45–55.Google Scholar
Bowens, N., Heydendael, W., Bhatnagar, S., Jacobson, L., 2012. Lack of elevations in glucocorticoids correlates with dysphoria-like behavior after repeated social defeat. Physiology & Behavior 105, 958–965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyce, P., Parker, G., 1988. Seasonal affective-disorder in the southern-hemisphere. American Journal of Psychiatry 145, 96–99.Google Scholar
Brummelte, S., Galea, L. A. M., 2010. Depression during pregnancy and postpartum: contribution of stress and ovarian hormones. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 34, 766–776.Google Scholar
Brummelte, S., Galea, L. A. M., 2016. Postpartum depression: etiology, treatment and consequences for maternal care. Hormones and Behavior 77, 153–166.Google Scholar
Buckley, T. C., Mozley, S. L., Bedard, M. A., Dewulf, A. C., Greif, J., 2004. Preventive health behaviors, health-risk behaviors, physical morbidity, and health-related role functioning impairment in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine 169, 536–540.Google Scholar
Buckley, T. C., Sunari, D., Marshall, A., Bartrop, R., McKinley, S., Tofler, G., 2012. Physiological correlates of bereavement and the impact of bereavement interventions. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 14, 129–139.Google Scholar
Bulloch, A. G. M., Fiest, K. M., Williams, J. V. A., Lavorato, D. H., Berzins, S. A., Jette, N., Pringsheim, T. M., Patten, S. B., 2015. Depression – a common disorder across a broad spectrum of neurological conditions: a cross-sectional nationally representative survey. General Hospital Psychiatry 37, 507–512.Google Scholar
Capuron, L., Gumnick, J. F., Musselman, D. L., Lawson, D. H., Reemsnyder, A., Nemeroff, C. B., Miller, A. H., 2002. Neurobehavioral effects of interferon-alpha in cancer patients: phenomenology and paroxetine responsiveness of symptom dimensions. Neuropsychopharmacology 26, 643–652.Google Scholar
Colla, J., Buka, S., Harrington, D., Murphy, J. M., 2006. Depression and modernization: a cross-cultural study of women. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41, 271–279.Google Scholar
Dantzer, R., 2001. Cytokine-induced sickness behavior: mechanisms and implications. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 933, 222–234.Google Scholar
Decatanzaro, D., 1986. A mathematical-model of evolutionary pressures regulating self-preservation and self-destruction. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 16, 166–181.Google Scholar
Egeland, J. A., Hostetter, A. M., 1983. Amish Study, I: affective disorders among the Amish, 1976–1980. American Journal of Psychiatry 140, 56–61.Google Scholar
Eisenberger, N. I., Inagaki, T. K., Mashal, N. M., Irvin, M. R., 2010. Inflammation and social experience: an inflammatory challenge induces feelings of social disconnection in addition to depressed mood. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 24, 558–563.Google Scholar
Erjavec, G. N., Sagud, M., Perkovic, M. N., Strac, D. S., Konjevod, M., Tudor, L., Uzun, S., Pivac, N., 2021. Depression: biological markers and treatment. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 105, 110139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Exner, C., Hebebrand, J., Remschmidt, H., Wewetzer, C., Ziegler, A., Herpertz, S., Schweiger, U., Blum, W. F., Preibisch, G., Heldmaier, G., Klingenspor, M., 2000. Leptin suppresses semi-starvation induced hyperactivity in rats: implications for anorexia nervosa. Molecular Psychiatry 5, 476–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Exton, M. S., 1997. Infection-induced anorexia: active host defence strategy. Appetite 29, 369–383.Google Scholar
Fagundes, C., Brown, R., Chen, M., Murdock, K., Saucedo, L., LeRoy, A., Wu, E., Garcini, L., Shanane, A., Baameur, F., Heijnen, C., 2019. Grief, depressive symptoms, and inflammation in the spousally bereaved. Psychoneuroendocrinology 100, 190–197.Google Scholar
Fisher, H. E., Brown, L. L., Aron, A., Strong, G., Mashek, D., 2010. Reward, addiction, and emotion regulation systems associated with rejection in love. Journal of Neurophysiology 104, 51–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, E. I., Nesse, R. M., Guille, C., Sen, S., 2015. The differential influence of life stress on individual symptoms of depression. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 131, 465–471.Google Scholar
Furman, D., Campisi, J., Verdin, E., Carrera-Bastos, P., Targ, S., Franceschi, C., Ferrucci, L., Gilroy, D. W., Fasano, A., Miller, G. W., Miller, A. H., Mantovani, A., Weyand, C. M., Barzilai, N., Goronzy, J. J., Rando, T. A., Effros, R. B., Lucia, A., Kleinstreuer, N., Slavich, G. M., 2019. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nature Medicine 25, 1822–1832.Google Scholar
Gardner, A., West, S. A., 2014. Inclusive fitness: 50 years on. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369, 20130356.Google Scholar
Gill, J. M., Saligan, L., Woods, S., Page, G., 2009. PTSD is associated with an excess of inflammatory immune activities. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care 45, 262–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gillies, D., Sampson, S., Beck, A., Rathbone, J., 2013. Benzodiazepines for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 12, CD003079.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, D. R., Rapaport, M. H., Miller, B. J., 2016. A meta-analysis of blood cytokine network alterations in psychiatric patients: comparisons between schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression. Molecular Psychiatry 21, 1696–1709.Google Scholar
Hagnell, O., Ojesjo, L., Otterbeck, L., Rorsman, B., 1993. Prevalence of mental disorders, personality traits and mental complaints in the Lundby Study. A point prevalence study of the 1957 Lundby cohort of 2,612 inhabitants of a geographically defined area who were re-examined in 1972 regardless of domicile. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine 50, 1–75.Google Scholar
Harrison, N. A., Brydon, L., Walker, C., Gray, M. A., Steptoe, A., Critchley, H. D., 2009. Inflammation causes mood changes through alterations in subgenual cingulate activity and mesolimbic connectivity. Biological Psychiatry 66, 407–414.Google Scholar
Hartung, T. J., Brahler, E., Faller, H., Harter, M., Hinz, A., Johansen, C., Keller, M., Koch, U., Schulz, H., Weis, J., Mehnert, A., 2017. The risk of being depressed is significantly higher in cancer patients than in the general population: prevalence and severity of depressive symptoms across major cancer types. European Journal of Cancer 72, 46–53.Google Scholar
Hasin, D. S., Sarvet, A. L., Meyers, J. L., Saha, T. D., Ruan, W. J., Stohl, M., Grant, B. F., 2018. Epidemiology of adult DSM-5 major depressive disorder and its specifiers in the United States. JAMA Psychiatry 75, 336–346.Google Scholar
Hidaka, B. H., 2012. Depression as a disease of modernity: explanations for increasing prevalence. Journal of Affective Disorders 140, 205–214.Google Scholar
Hollan, D. W., Wellenkamp, J. C., 1994. Contentment and Suffering: Culture and Experience in Toraja. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Hollan, D. W., Wellenkamp, J. C., 1996. The Thread of Life: Toraja Reflections on the Life Cycle. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI.Google Scholar
Holmes, S. E., Hinz, R., Conen, S., Gregory, C. J., Matthews, J. C., Anton-Rodriguez, J. M., Gerhard, A., Talbot, P. S., 2018. Elevated translocator protein in anterior cingulate in major depression and a role for inflammation in suicidal thinking: a positron emission tomography study. Biological Psychiatry 83, 61–69.Google Scholar
Johansson, R., Carlbring, P., Heedman, A., Paxling, B., Andersson, G., 2013. Depression, anxiety and their comorbidity in the Swedish general population: point prevalence and the effect on health-related quality of life. PeerJ 1, e98.Google Scholar
Kappelmann, N., Lewis, G., Dantzer, R., Jones, P., Khandaker, G., 2017. Antidepressant activity of anti-cytokine treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials of chronic inflammatory conditions. Molecular Psychiatry 23, 335–343.Google Scholar
Keller, M. C., Nesse, R. M., 2005. Is low mood an adaptation? Evidence for subtypes with symptoms that match precipitants. Journal of Affective Disorders 86, 27–35.Google Scholar
Keller, M. C., Nesse, R. M., 2006. The evolutionary significance of depressive symptoms: different adverse situations lead to different depressive symptom patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91, 316–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keller, M. C., Neale, M. C., Kendler, K. S., 2007. Association of different adverse life events with distinct patterns of depressive symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 1521–1529.Google Scholar
Keyes, C., 1986. The interpretive basis of depression. In: Kleinman, A., Good, B. J. (eds.), Culture and Depression: Studies in the Anthropology and Cross-Cultural Psychiatry of Affect and Disorder. University of California Press, pp. 153–174.Google Scholar
Keys, A., 1950. The Biology of Human Starvation. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN.Google Scholar
Khandaker, G. M., Pearson, R. M., Zammit, S., Lewis, G., Jones, P. B., 2014. Association of serum interleukin 6 and C-reactive protein in childhood with depression and psychosis in young adult life: a population-based longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry 71, 1121–1128.Google Scholar
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., 2018. Marriage, divorce, and the immune system. American Psychologist 73, 1098–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, E. Y., Kim, S. H., Rhee, S. J., Huh, L., Ha, K., Kim, J., Chang, J. S., Yoon, D. H., Park, T., Ahn, Y. M., 2015. Relationship between thyroid-stimulating hormone levels and risk of depression among the general population with normal free T4 levels. Psychoneuroendocrinology 58, 114–119.Google Scholar
Kohler-Forsherg, O., Lydholm, C. N., Hjorthoj, C., Nordentoft, M., Mors, O., Benros, M.E., 2019. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory treatment on major depressive disorder or depressive symptoms: meta-analysis of clinical trials. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 139, 404–419.Google Scholar
Lea, A. J., Martins, D., Kamau, J., Gurven, M., Ayroles, J. F., 2020. Urbanization and market integration have strong, nonlinear effects on cardiometabolic health in the Turkana. Science Advances 6, eabb1430.Google Scholar
Lee, S., Tsang, A., Zhang, M. Y., Huang, Y. Q., He, Y. L., Liu, Z. R., Shen, Y. C., Kessler, R. C., 2007. Lifetime prevalence and inter-cohort variation in DSM-IV disorders in metropolitan China. Psychological Medicine 37, 61–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeies, M., Pagura, J., Sareen, J., Bolton, J. M., 2010. The use of alcohol and drugs to self-medicate symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 27, 731–736.Google Scholar
Lindeberg, S., 2010. Food and Western Disease: Health and Nutrition from an Evolutionary Perspective. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.Google Scholar
Liu, Q. Q., He, H. R., Yang, J., Feng, X. J., Zhao, F. F., Lyu, J., 2020. Changes in the global burden of depression from 1990 to 2017: findings from the Global Burden of Disease study. Journal of Psychiatric Research 126, 134–140.Google Scholar
Luoto, S., Karlsson, H., Krams, I., Rantala, M., 2018. Depression subtyping based on evolutionary psychiatry: from reactive short-term mood change to depression. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 69, 630.Google Scholar
Macht, M., Simons, G., 2000. Emotions and eating in everyday life. Appetite 35, 65–71.Google Scholar
Magee, C. A., Huang, X. F., Iverson, D. C., Caputi, P., 2009. Acute sleep restriction alters neuroendocrine hormones and appetite in healthy male adults. Sleep and Biological Rhythms 7, 125–127.Google Scholar
Matcham, F., Rayner, L., Steer, S., Hotopf, M., 2013. The prevalence of depression in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rheumatology 52, 2136–2148.Google Scholar
Mavroudis, P. D., Scheff, J. D., Calvano, S. E., Androulakis, I. P., 2013. Systems biology of circadian–immune interactions. Journal of Innate Immunity 5, 153–162.Google Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., Jin, R., He, J.-P., Kessler, R. C., Lee, S., Sampson, N. A., Viana, M. C., Andrade, L. H., Hu, C., Karam, E. G., Ladea, M., Medina-Mora, M. E., Ono, Y., Posada-Villa, J., Sagar, R., Wells, J. E., Zarkov, Z., 2011. Prevalence and correlates of bipolar spectrum disorder in the World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Archives of General Psychiatry 68, 241–251.Google Scholar
Miller, A. H., Raison, C. L., 2016. The role of inflammation in depression: from evolutionary imperative to modern treatment target. Nature Reviews Immunology 16, 22–34.Google Scholar
Mouthaan, J., Sijbrandij, M., Luitse, J. S. K., Goslings, J. C., Gersons, B. P. R., Olff, M., 2014. The role of acute cortisol and DHEAS in predicting acute and chronic PTSD symptoms. Psychoneuroendocrinology 45, 179–186.Google Scholar
Myers, S., Emmott, E., 2021. Communication across maternal social networks during the UK’s national lockdown and its association with postnatal depressive symptoms. Frontiers in Psychology 12, 648002.Google Scholar
Nesse, R. M., 2019. Good Reasons for Bad Feelings. Allen Lane, London.Google Scholar
Nettle, D., 2004. Evolutionary origins of depression: a review and reformulation. Journal of Affective Disorders 81, 91–102.Google Scholar
O’Donovan, A., Rush, G., Hoatam, G., Hughes, B. M., McCrohan, A., Kelleher, C., O’Farrelly, C., Malone, K. M., 2013. Suicidal ideation is associated with elevated inflammation in patients with major depressive disorder. Depression and Anxiety 30, 307–314.Google Scholar
Olff, M., Meewisse, M. L., Kleber, R. J., van der Velden, P. G., Drogendijk, A. N., van Amsterdam, J. G. C., Opperhuizen, A., Gersons, B. P. R., 2006. Tobacco usage interacts with postdisaster psychopathology on circadian salivary cortisol. International Journal of Psychophysiology 59, 251–258.Google Scholar
Osimo, E. F., Baxter, L. J., Lewis, G., Jones, P. B., Khandaker, G. M., 2019. Prevalence of low-grade inflammation in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of CRP levels. Psychological Medicine 49, 1958–1970.Google Scholar
Pinquart, M., Duberstein, P. R., 2010. Depression and cancer mortality: a meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine 40, 1797–1810.Google Scholar
Raheja, U. K., Stephens, S. H., Mitchell, B. D., Rohan, K. J., Vaswani, D., Balis, T. G., Nijjar, G. V., Sleemi, A., Pollin, T. I., Ryan, K., Reeves, G. M., Weitzel, N., Morrissey, M., Yousufi, H., Langenberg, P., Shuldiner, A. R., Postolache, T. T., 2013. Seasonality of mood and behavior in the Old Order Amish. Journal of Affective Disorders 147, 112–117.Google Scholar
Rantala, M. J., Luoto, S., Krama, T., Krams, I., 2019. Eating disorders: an evolutionary psychoneuroimmunological approach. Frontiers in Psychology 10, 2200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rantala, M. J., Luoto, S., Krams, I., 2017. An evolutionary approach to clinical pharmacopsychology. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 86, 370–371.Google Scholar
Rantala, M. J., Luoto, S., Krams, I., Karlsson, H., 2018. Depression subtyping based on evolutionary psychiatry: proximate mechanisms and ultimate functions. Brain, Behaviour, and Immunity 69, 603–617.Google Scholar
Reutfors, J., Osby, U., Ekbom, A., Nordstrom, P., Jokinen, J., Papadopoulos, F. C., 2009. Seasonality of suicide in Sweden: relationship with psychiatric disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 119, 59–65.Google Scholar
Richards, E. M., Zanotti-Fregonara, P., Fujita, M., Newman, L., Farmer, C., Ballard, E. D., Machado-Vieira, R., Yuan, P. X., Niciu, M. J., Lyoo, C. H., Henter, I. D., Salvadore, G., Drevets, W. C., Kolb, H., Innis, R. B., Zarate, C. A., 2018. PET radioligand binding to translocator protein (TSPO) is increased in unmedicated depressed subjects. EJNMMI Research 8, 57.Google Scholar
Rucklidge, J. J., Andridge, R., Gorman, B., Blampied, N., Gordon, H., Boggis, A., 2012. Shaken but unstirred? Effects of micronutrients on stress and trauma after an earthquake: RCT evidence comparing formulas and doses. Human Psychopharmacology – Clinical and Experimental 27, 440–454.Google Scholar
Rygula, R., Abumaria, N., Flugge, G., Fuchs, E., Ruther, E., Havemann-Reinecke, U., 2005. Anhedonia and motivational deficits in rats: impact of chronic social stress. Behavioural Brain Research 162, 127–134.Google Scholar
Rytwinski, N. K., Scur, M. D., Feeny, N. C., Youngstrom, E. A., 2013. The co-occurrence of major depressive disorder among individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress 26, 299–309.Google Scholar
Schaller, M., Park, J. H., 2011. The behavioral immune system (and why it matters). Current Directions in Psychological Science 20, 99–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schieffelin, E., 1986. The cultural analysis of depressive affect: an example from New Guinea. In: Kleinman, A. M., Good, B. (eds.), Culture and Depression: Studies in the Anthropology and Cross-Cultural Psychiatry of Affect and Disorder. University of California Press, pp. 101–133.Google Scholar
Schmid-Hempel, P., 2011. Evolutionary Parasitology: The Integrated Study of Infections, Immunology, Ecology, and Genetics. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Schnorr, S. L., Candela, M., Rampelli, S., Centanni, M., Consolandi, C., Basaglia, G., Turroni, S., Biagi, E., Peano, C., Severgnini, M., Fiori, J., Gotti, R., De Bellis, G., Luiselli, D., Brigidi, P., Mabulla, A., Marlowe, F., Henry, A. G., Crittenden, A. N., 2014. Gut microbiome of the Hadza hunter-gatherers. Nature Communications 5, 3654.Google Scholar
Schuckit, M. A., 2006. Comorbidity between substance use disorders and psychiatric conditions. Addiction 101, 76–88.Google Scholar
Setiawan, E., Wilson, A. A., Mizrahi, R., Rusjan, P. M., Miler, L., Rajkowska, G., Suridjan, I., Kennedy, J. L., Rekkas, V., Houle, S., Meyer, J. H., 2015. Role of translocator protein density, a marker of neuroinflammation, in the brain during major depressive episodes. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 268–275.Google Scholar
Shively, C. A., LaberLaird, K., Anton, R. F., 1997. Behavior and physiology of social stress and depression in female cynomolgus monkeys. Biological Psychiatry 41, 871–882.Google Scholar
Sim, K., Lau, W. K., Sim, J., Sum, M. Y., Baldessarini, R. J., 2016. Prevention of relapse and recurrence in adults with major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analyses of controlled trials. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 19, pyv076.Google Scholar
Slavich, G. M., Irwin, M. R., 2014. From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: a social signal transduction theory of depression. Psychological Bulletin 140, 774–815.Google Scholar
Thomas, E., 2006. The Old Way: A Story of the First People. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York.Google Scholar
Troubat, R., Barone, P., Leman, S., Desmidt, T., Cressant, A., Atanasova, B., Brizard, B., El Hage, W., Surget, A., Belzung, C., Camus, V., 2021. Neuroinflammation and depression: a review. European Journal of Neuroscience 53, 151–171.Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M., Gentile, B., DeWall, C. N., Ma, D., Lacefield, K., Schurtz, D. R., 2010. Birth cohort increases in psychopathology among young Americans, 1938–2007: a cross-temporal meta-analysis of the MMPI. Clinical Psychology Review 30, 145–154.Google Scholar
Watson, P. J., Andrews, P. W., 2002. Toward a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis of depression: the social navigation hypothesis. Journal of Affective Disorders 72, 1–14.Google Scholar
Wilhelm, C., Jayagopi Surendar, J., Karagiannis, F., 2021. Enemy or ally? Fasting as an essential regulator of immune responses. Trends in Immunology 42, 389–400.Google Scholar
Williams, A. C. D., 2016. What can evolutionary theory tell us about chronic pain? Pain 157, 788–790.Google Scholar
Williams, G. C., Nesse, R. M., 1991. The dawn of Darwinian medicine. Quarterly Review of Biology 66, 1–22.Google Scholar
Yang, L. F., Zhao, Y. H., Wang, Y. C., Liu, L., Zhang, X. Y., Li, B. J., Cui, R. J., 2015. The effects of psychological stress on depression. Current Neuropharmacology 13, 494–504.Google Scholar
Zalli, A., Jovanova, O., Hoogendijk, W. J. G., Tiemeier, H., Carvalho, L. A., 2016. Low-grade inflammation predicts persistence of depressive symptoms. Psychopharmacology 233, 1669–1678.Google Scholar
Zefferman, M., Mathew, S., 2021. Combat stress in a small-scale society suggests divergent evolutionary roots for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, e2020430118.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×