Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T04:24:49.140Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

14 - Social Learning Strategies

from Part I - Evolution of Learning Processes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 May 2022

Mark A. Krause
Affiliation:
Southern Oregon University
Karen L. Hollis
Affiliation:
Mount Holyoke College, Massachusetts
Mauricio R. Papini
Affiliation:
Texas Christian University
Get access

Summary

Animal learning may play several important roles in evolution. Here we discuss how: (1) learning can provide an additional form of inheritance, (2) learning can instigate plasticity-first evolution, (3) learning can influence niche construction, and (4) learning can generate developmental bias. Evidence for these evolutionary effects of learning has accumulated rapidly over the last two decades, yet their significance for biological evolution remains poorly appreciated.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acerbi, A. (2019). Cognitive attraction and online misinformation. Palgrave Communications, 5, 15. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0224-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aplin, L. M., Farine, D. R., Moran-Ferron, J., Cockburn, A., Thornton, A., & Sheldon, B. (2015). Experimentally induced innovations lead to persistent culture via conformity in wild birds. Nature, 518, 538541. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13998Google Scholar
Aplin, L. M. Sheldon, B. C., & McElreath, R. (2017). Conformity does not perpetuate suboptimal traditions in a wild population of songbirds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114, 78307837. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1621067114Google Scholar
Aplin, L.M., Sheldon, B., & Morand-Ferron, J. (2013). Milk-bottles revisited: Social learning and individual variation in the blue tit, Cyanistes caeruleus. Animal Behaviour, 85, 12251232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.03.009Google Scholar
Apps, M. A. J., Rushworth, M. F. S., & Chang, S. W. C. (2016). The anterior cingulate gyrus and social cognition: Tracking the motivation of others. Neuron, 90, 692707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2016.04.018Google Scholar
Apps, M. A. J., & Sallet, J. (2017). Social learning in the medial prefrontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21, 151152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.01.008Google Scholar
Avarguès-Weber, A., Lachlan, R., & Chittka, L., (2018). Bumblebee social learning can lead to suboptimal foraging choices. Animal Behaviour, 135, 209214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.11.022Google Scholar
Baracchi, D., Vasas, V., Iqbal, S. J., & Alem, S. (2017). Foraging bumblebees use social cues more when the task is difficult. Behavioural Ecology, 29, 186192. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arx143Google Scholar
Barrett, B. J., McElreath, R. L., & Perry, S. (2017). Payoff-biased social learning underlies the diffusion of novel extractive foraging traditions in a wild primate. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 284, 20170358. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.0358Google Scholar
van Bergen, Y., Coolen, I., & Laland, K.N. (2004). Nine-spined sticklebacks exploit the most reliable source when public and private information conflict. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 271, 957962. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.2684CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolhuis, J. J., Okanoya, K., & Scharff, C. (2010). Twitter evolution: converging mechanisms in bird song and human speech. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11, 747759. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2931CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bono, A. E. J., Whiten, A., van Schaik, C., Krützen, M., Eichenberger, F., Schnider, A., & van de Waal, E. (2018). Payoff- and sex-biased social learning interact in a wild primate population. Current Biology, 2, 28002805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.015Google Scholar
Boogert, N. J., Zimmer, C., & Spencer, K. A. (2013). Pre- and post-natal stress have opposing effects on social information use. Biology Letters, 9, 20121088. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.1088CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyd, J. L., Skove, S. L., Rouanet, J. P., Pilaz, L.-J., Bepler, T., Gordân, R., Wray, G. A., & Silver, D. L. (2015) Human-chimpanzee differences in a FZD8 enhancer alter cell-cycle dynamics in the developing neocortex. Current Biology, 25, 772779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.041CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (1985). Culture and the evolutionary process. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Boyd, R., Richerson, P. J., & Henrich, J. (2011). The cultural niche: Why social learning is essential for human adaptation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 1091810925. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100290108CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, L. J. N., Franks, D. W., Foster, E. A., Balcomb, K. C., Cant, M. A., & Croft, D. P. (2015). Ecological knowledge, leadership, and the evolution of menopause in killer whales. Current Biology, 25, 746750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.037CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrne, R. (1994). The evolution of intelligence. In Slater, P. J. B. & Halliday, T. R. (Eds.), Behaviour and evolution (pp. 223265). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Byrne, R. W. (2002). Imitation of novel complex actions: What does the evidence from animals mean? Advances in the Study of Behavior, 31, 77105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3454(02)80006-7Google Scholar
Call, J. (2017). APA handbook of comparative psychology. The American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Canteloup, C., Hoppitt, W., & van de Waal, E. (2020). Wild primates copy higher ranked individuals in a social transmission experiment. Nature Communications, 11, 459. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-14209-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carr, K., Kendal, R. L., & Flynn, E. G. (2015). Imitate or innovate? Children’s innovation is influenced by the efficacy of observed behaviour. Cognition, 142, 322332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.05.005Google Scholar
Chudek, M., Heller, S., Birch, S., & Henrich, J. (2012). Prestige-biased cultural learning: Bystander’s differential attention to potential models influences children’s learning. Evolution & Human Behavior, 33, 4656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clegg, J. M., & Legare, C. H. (2016). A cross-cultural comparison of children’s imitative flexibility. Developmental Psychology, 52, 14351444. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dev0000131CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coelho, C. G., Falotico, T., Izar, P., Mannu, M., Resende, B. D., Siqueira, J. O., & Ottoni, E. B. (2015). Social learning strategies for nut-cracking by tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.). Animal Cognition, 18, 911919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0861-5Google Scholar
Coolen, I., van Bergen, Y., Day, R. L., & Laland, K. N. (2003). Species differences in adaptive use of public information in sticklebacks. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 270, 24132419. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2003.2525Google Scholar
Danchin, E., Nobel, S., Pocheville, A., Dagaeff, A.-C., Demay, L., Alphand, M., Ranty-Roby, S., van Renssen, L., Monier, M., Gazagne, E., Allain, M., & Isabel, G. (2018). Cultural flies: Conformist social learning in fruitflies predicts long-lasting mate-choice traditions. Science, 362, 10251030. https://doi/10.1126/science.aat1590Google Scholar
Dawson, B. V., & Foss, B. M. (1965). Observational learning in budgerigars. Animal Behavior, 13(4), 470474. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/0003-3472(65)90108-9Google Scholar
Dean, L., Kendal, R. L., Schapiro, S., Lambeth, S., Thierry, B., & Laland, K. N. (2012). Identification of the social and cognitive processes underlying human cumulative culture. Science, 335, 1114–118. https://doi/doi/10.1126/science.1213969CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dean, L. G., Vale, G. L., Laland, K. N., Flynn, E., & Kendal, R. L. (2014). Human cumulative culture: A comparative perspective. Biological Reviews, 89(2), 284301. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12053Google Scholar
Dunstone, J., & Caldwell, C. A. (2018). Cumulative culture and explicit metacognition: A review of theories, evidence and key predictions. Palgrave Communications, 4(1), 111. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0200-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Efferson, C., Lalive, R., Richerson, P. J., McElreath, R., & Lubell, M. (2008). Conformists and mavericks: The empirics of frequency-dependent cultural transmission. Evolution & Human Behavior 29, 5664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.08.003Google Scholar
Enquist, M., Eriksson, K., & Ghirlanda, S. (2007). Critical social learning: A solution to Roger’s paradox of non-adaptive culture. American Anthropologist, 109, 727734. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2007.109.4.727Google Scholar
Eriksson, K., Enquist, M., & Ghirlanda, S. (2007). Critical points in current theory of conformist social learning. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 5, 6787. https://doi.org/10.1556/jep.2007.1009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, C., Laland, K. N., Carpenter, M., & Kendal, R. L. (2018). Selective copying of the majority suggests children are broadly “optimal-” rather than “over-” imitators. Developmental Science, 21, e12637. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12637CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farine, D. R., Spencer, K. A., & Boogert, N. J. (2015). Early-life stress triggers juvenile zebra finches to switch social learning strategies. Current Biology, 25, 21842188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.071Google Scholar
Fawcett, T. W., Hamblin, S., & Giraldeau, L.-A. (2013). Exposing the behavioral gambit: The evolution of learning and decision rules. Behavioral Ecology, 24, 211. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/ars085CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, M. W., Aoki, K., & Kumm, J. (1996). Individual versus social learning: Evolutionary analysis in a fluctuating environment. Anthropological Science, 104, 209231. https://doi.org/10.1537/ase.104.209Google Scholar
Fiorito, G., & Scotto, P. (1992). Observational learning in Octopus vulgaris. Science, 256, 545547. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.256.5056.545Google Scholar
Flynn, E. G., Turner, C., & Giraldeau, L.-A. (2016). Selectivity in social and asocial learning: Investigating the prevalence, effect and development of young children’s learning preferences. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 371, 20150189. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0189Google Scholar
Flynn, E., & Whiten, A. (2012). Experimental “microcultures” in young children: Identifying biographic, cognitive, and social predictors of information transmission. Child Development, 83, 911925. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01747.xGoogle Scholar
Galef, B. G. (1988). Imitation in animals: History, definition, and interpretation of the data from the laboratory. In Zentall, T. R. & Galef, B. G. (Eds.), Social learning: Psychological and biological perspectives (pp. 327). Lawrence Elbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Galef, B. G. (1992). The question of animal culture. Human Nature, 3, 157178. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02692251CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galef, B. G. & Yarkovsky, N. (2009). Further studies of reliance on socially acquired information when foraging in potentially risky situations. Animal Behaviour, 77, 13291335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.01.038Google Scholar
Griffin, A. (2004). Social learning about predators: a review and prospectus. Learning & Behavior, 32, 131140. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196014Google Scholar
Haun, D. B. M., Rekers, Y., & Tomasello, M. (2012). Majority-biased transmission in chimpanzees and human children, but not orangutans. Current Biology, 22, 727731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.006Google Scholar
Henrich, J., & Boyd, R. (1998). The evolution of conformist transmission and the emergence of between-group differences. Evolution & Human Behavior, 19(4), 215241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(98)00018-XGoogle Scholar
Henrich, J., & Broesch, J. (2011). On the nature of cultural transmission networks: Evidence from Fijian villages for adaptive learning biases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, 366, 11391148. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0323Google Scholar
Heyes, C. M. (2012). What’s social about social learning? Journal of Comparative Psychology, 126, 193202. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0025180CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyes, C. M. (2016a). Blackboxing: Social learning strategies and cultural evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, 371, 20150369. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0369Google Scholar
Heyes, C. M. (2016b). Who knows? Metacognitive social learning strategies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(3), 204213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.12.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heyes, C. M., Jaldow, E., & Dawson, G. R. (1994). Imitation in rats: Conditions of occurrence in a bidirectional control procedure. Learning & Motivation 25, 276287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0376-6357(94)90074-4Google Scholar
Heyes, C. M., & Pearce, J. M. (2015). Not-so-social learning strategies. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 282, 20141709. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1709CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, M. R., Boorman, E. D., & Itzhak, F. (2016). Observational learning computations in neurons of the human anterior cingulate cortex. Nature Communications, 7, 12722. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12722CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinde, R. A., & Fisher, J. (1951). Further observations on the opening of milk bottles by birds. British Birds, 44, 393396.Google Scholar
Hoppitt, W., & Laland, K. N. (2008). Social processes influencing learning in animals: A review of the evidence. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 38, 105166. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3454(08)00003-XGoogle Scholar
Hoppitt, W., & Laland, K. N. (2013). Social learning mechanisms: An introduction to mechanisms, methods and models. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8, 164181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-004-0239-6Google Scholar
Howard, L. H., Wagner, K. E., Woodward, A. L., Ross, S. R., & Hopper, L. M. (2017). Social models enhance apes’ memory for novel events. Scientific Reports, 7, 40926. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40926CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jesse, F., & Riebel, K. (2012). Social facilitation of male song by male and female conspecifics in the zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata. Behavioural Processes 91(3), 262266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2012.09.006Google Scholar
Jones, P. L., Ryan, M. J., & Chittka, L. (2015). The influence of past experience with flower reward quality on social learning in bumblebees. Animal Behaviour, 101, 1118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.12.016Google Scholar
Jones, P. L., Ryan, M. J., Flores, V., & Page, R. A. (2013). When to approach novel prey cues? Social learning strategies in frog-eating bats. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 280, 20132330. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2330Google Scholar
Kendal, R. L., Coolen, I., & Laland, K. N. (2004). The role of conformity in foraging when personal and social information conflict. Behavioral Ecology, 15, 269277. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arh008Google Scholar
Kendal, R. L., Kendal, J. R., Hoppitt, W., & Laland, K. N. (2009a). Identifying social learning in animal populations: A new ‘option-bias’ method. PLoS ONE, 4, e6541. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006541Google Scholar
Kendal, J. R., Rendell, L., Pike, T. W., & Laland, K. N. (2009b). Nine-spined sticklebacks deploy a hill-climbing social learning strategy. Behavioral Ecology, 20(2), 238244. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arp016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendal, J. R., Giraldeau, L.-A., & Laland, K. N. (2009c). The evolution of social learning rules: Payoff-biased and frequency-dependent biased transmission. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 260, 210219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.05.029Google Scholar
Kendal, R. L., Hopper, L. M., Whiten, A., Brosnan, S. F., Lambeth, S. P., Schapiro, S. J., & Hoppitt, W. (2015). Chimpanzees copy dominant and knowledgeable individuals: Implications for cultural diversity. Evolution & Human Behavior, 36, 6572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.09.002Google Scholar
Kendal, R. L., Boogert, N., Rendell, L., Laland, K. N., Webster, M. & Jones, P. L. (2018). Social learning strategies: Bridge-building between fields. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(7), 651665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.04.003Google Scholar
Laland, K. N. (2004). Social learning strategies. Learning & Behavior, 32, 414. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laland, K. N. (2017). Darwin’s unfinished symphony: How culture made the human mind. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Laland, K. N., Richerson, P. J., and Boyd, R. (1996). Developing a theory of animal social learning. In Heyes, C. M. and Galef, B. G., Jr. (Eds.), Social learning in animals: The roots of culture. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/B978-012273965-1/50008-XGoogle Scholar
Laland, K. N., & Williams, K. (1997). Shoaling generates social learning of foraging information in guppies. Animal Behaviour, 53, 11611169. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0318Google Scholar
Laland, K. N., & Janik, V. M. (2006). The animal cultures debate. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 21(10), 542547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2006.06.005Google Scholar
Laland, K. N., Atton, N., & Webster, M. M. (2011). From fish to fashion: Experimental and theoretical insights into the evolution of culture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B., 366, 958968. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0328Google Scholar
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Acerbi, A., Kendal, R. L., Tennie, C., & Haun, D. B. M. (2016). A reappreciation of “conformity.” Animal Behaviour, 122, e5e10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.09.010Google Scholar
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., and Call, J. (2017). Conservatism and “copy-if-better” in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Animal Cognition, 20(3), 575579. https://doi/10.1007/s10071-016-1061-7Google Scholar
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Cronin, K. A., Schütte, S., Call, J., & Haun, D. B. M. (2013). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) flexibly adjust their behaviour in order to maximize payoffs, not to conform to majorities. PLoS ONE, 8, e80945. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080945Google Scholar
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Cronin, K. A., & Haun, D. B. (2014). A group-specific arbitrary tradition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Animal Cognition 17(6), 14211425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-014-0766-8Google Scholar
van Leeuwen, E. J. C., Kendal, R. L., Tennie, C., & Haun, D. B. M. (2015). Conformity and its look-a-likes. Animal Behaviour, 110, e1e4.Google Scholar
Leris, I., & Reader, S. M. (2016). Age and early social environment influence guppy social learning propensities. Animal Behaviour, 120, 1119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.07.012Google Scholar
Luncz, L., Mundry, R., & Boesch, C. (2012). Evidence for cultural differences between neighboring chimpanzee communities. Current Biology, 22(10), 922926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.031Google Scholar
Mesoudi, A. (2011). An experimental comparison of human social learning strategies: Payoff-biased social learning is adaptive but underused. Evolution & Human Behavior, 32(5), 334342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.12.001Google Scholar
Mesoudi, A., Chang, L., Dall, S. R. X., & Thornton, A. (2016). The evolution of individual and cultural variation in social learning. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 31(3), 215225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2015.12.012Google Scholar
Mesoudi, A., Whiten, A., & Dunbar, R. (2006). A bias for social information in human cultural transmission. British Journal of Psychology, 97, 405423. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605X85871Google Scholar
Matsuzawa, T. (1994). Field experiments on use of stone tools by chimpanzees in the wild. In Wrangham, R. W., McGrew, W. C., de Waal, F. B. M., & Heltne, P. (Eds.), Chimpanzee cultures (pp. 351370). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
McElreath, R., Bell, A. V., Efferson, C., Lubell, M., Richerson, P. J., & Waring, T. M. (2008). Beyond existence and aiming outside the laboratory: Estimating frequency-dependent and pay-off-biased social learning strategies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363, 35153528. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0131Google Scholar
Mineka, S., & Cook, M. (1988). Social learning and the acquisition of snake fear in monkeys. In Galef, B. G. & Zentall, T. R. (Eds.), Social learning: Psychological and biological perspectives (pp. 5173). Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Morgan, T. J. H., Rendell, L. E., Ehn, M., Hoppitt, W., & Laland, K. N. (2011). The evolutionary basis of human social learning. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 279, 653662. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.1172Google Scholar
Morgan, T. J. H., & Laland, K. N. (2012). The biological bases of conformity. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 87. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2012.00087Google Scholar
Rieucau, G., & Giraldeau, L.-A. (2011). Exploring the costs and benefits of social information use: An appraisal of current experimental evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B, 366, 949957. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0325CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rendell, L., Fogarty, L., & Laland, K. N. (2010). Roger’s paradox recast and resolved: Population structure and the evolution of social learning strategies. Evolution, 64, 534548. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00817.xGoogle Scholar
Rendell, L., Fogarty, L., Hoppitt, W. J. E., Morgan, T. J. H., Webster, M. M., & Laland, K. N. (2011). Cognitive culture: Theoretical and empirical insights into social learning strategies. Trends in Cognitive Science, 15, 6876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.12.002Google Scholar
Schlag, K. H. (1998). Why imitate, and if so, how? A bounded rationality approach to multi-armed bandits. Journal of Economic Theory, 78, 130156. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeth.1997.2347CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherry, D. F., & Galef, B. G. (1990). Social learning without imitation. Animal Behaviour, 40, 987989. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)81004-8Google Scholar
Spence, K. W. (1937). Experimental studies of learning and the higher mental processes in infra-human primates. Psychological Bulletin, 34(10), 806. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0061498Google Scholar
Sperber, D., & Hirschfeld, L. A. (2004). The cognitive foundations of cultural stability and diversity. Trends in Cognitive Science 8(1), 4046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.002Google Scholar
Stroeymert, N., Giurfa, M., & Franks, N. R. (2017). Information certainty determines social and private information use in ants. Scientific Reports, 7, 43607. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep43607Google Scholar
Stubbersfield, J. M., Tehrani, J. J., Flynn, E. G. (2015). Serial killers, spiders and cybersex: Social and survival information bias in the transmission of urban legends. British Journal of Psychology, 106, 288307. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12073Google Scholar
Tan, A. W. Y., Hemelrijk, C. K., Malaivijitnond, S., & Gumert, M. D. (2018). Young macaques (Macaca fascicularis) preferentially bias attention towards closer, older, and better tool users. Animal Cognition, 21, 551563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-018-1188-9Google Scholar
Thornton, A., & Malapert, A. ( 2009). Experimental evidence for social transmission of food acquisition techniques in wild meerkats. Animal Behaviour, 78(2), 255264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.04.021Google Scholar
Thorpe, W. H. (1956). Learning and instinct in animals. Methuen & Co., Ltd.Google Scholar
Toelch, U., Bruce, M. J., Newson, L., Richerson, P. J., & Reader, S. M. (2014). Individual consistency and flexibility in human social information use. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 281, 20132864. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2864Google Scholar
Tomasello, M. (1994). The question of chimpanzee culture. In Wrangham, R. W., McGrew, W. C., de Waal, F. B. M., & Heltne, P. (Eds.), Chimpanzee cultures (pp. 301317). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Toyokawa, W., Whalen, A., & Laland, K. N. (2019). Social learning strategies regulate the wisdom and madness of interactive crowds. Nature Human Behaviour, 3, 183193. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0518-xGoogle Scholar
Tylor, E. B. (1871). Primitive culture: Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art and custom. Murray.Google Scholar
Vale, G. L., Flynn, E. G., Kendal, J. R., Rawlings, B., Hopper, L. M., Schapiro, S. J., Lambeth, S. P., & Kendal, R. L. (2017). Testing differential use of payoff-biased social learning strategies in children and chimpanzees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 284, 1751. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1751Google Scholar
Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359, 11461151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559Google Scholar
van de Waal, E., Renevey, N., Favre, C. M., & Bshary, R. (2010). Selective attention to philopatric models causes directed social learning in wild vervet monkeys. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 277, 21052111. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2009.2260Google Scholar
van de Waal, E., Borgeaud, C., & Whiten, A. (2013). Potent social learning and conformity shape a wild primate’s foraging decisions. Science, 340 (6131), 483485. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1232769Google Scholar
Watson, R., Morgan, T., Kendal, R.L., van de Vyver, J., Kendal, J.R. (2021). Social learning strategies and cooperative behaviour: Evidence of payoff bias, but not prestige or conformity, in a social dilemma game. Games, 12, 89. https://doi.org/10.3390/g12040089Google Scholar
Watson, S. K., Reamer, L. A., Mareno, M. C., Vale, G., Harrison, R. A., Lambeth, S. P., & Schapiro, S. J. (2017). Socially transmitted diffusion of a novel behavior from subordinate chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology, 79, e22642. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22642Google Scholar
Webster, M. M., & Laland, K. N. (2008). Social learning strategies and predation risk: minnows copy only when using private information would be costly. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Biological Sciences, 275, 28692876. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.0817Google Scholar
Webster, M. M., & Laland, K. N. (2011). Reproductive state affects reliance on public information in sticklebacks. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 278, 619627. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.1562Google Scholar
Whalen, A., Griffiths, T. L., & Buchsbaum, D. (2017). Sensitivity to shared information in social learning. Cognitive Science, 42, 168187. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12485Google Scholar
Whiten, A., & Ham, R. (1992). On the nature and evolution of imitation in the animal kingdom: Reappraisal of a century of research. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 21, 239283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiten, A., & van Schaik, C. P. (2007). The evolution of animal “cultures” and social intelligence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362(1480), 603620. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1998Google Scholar
Whiten, A., & Erdal, D. (2012). The human sociocognitive niche and its evolutionary origins. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B., 367, 21192129. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0114Google Scholar
Whiten, A., Horner, V., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2005). Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature, 437(7059), 737740. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04047Google Scholar
Wilkinson, A., Kuenstner, K., Mueller, J., & Huber, L. (2010). Social learning in a non-social reptile (Geochelone carbonaria). Biology Letters, 6, 614616. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0092Google Scholar
Wood, L. A., Kendal, R. L., & Flynn, E. G. (2012). Context-dependent model-based biases in cultural transmission: Children’s imitation is affected by model age over model knowledge state. Evolution & Human Behavior, 33, 387394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.11.010Google Scholar
Wood, L. A., Kendal, R. L., & Flynn, E. G. (2013). Copy me or copy you? The effect of prior experience on social learning. Cognition, 127, 203213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2013.01.002Google Scholar
Wood, L. A. (2013). Chimpanzee tool-use is biased by the prior proficiency of known conspecifics. In The influence of model-based biases and observer prior experience on social learning mechanisms and strategies. Durham theses, Durham University. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7274/Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×