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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2024

Edited by
Tom Ginsburg ,
Aziz Z. Huq  and
Tarun Khaitan
Tom Ginsburg
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
Aziz Z. Huq
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
Tarun Khaitan
Affiliation:
London School of Economics and Political Science
Type
Chapter
Information
The Entrenchment of Democracy
The Comparative Constitutional Design of Elections, Parties and Voting
 , pp. 261 - 268
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NC
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

absentee voters, 216, 219–220
abusive constitutional borrowing, 46–56
concept and general forms of, 47–49
electoral Commissions and fraud, 55–56
electoral equality and quotas, 51
electoral integrity, 52–53, 56–59
militant democracy and party banning, 53–55, 115–117
responses to, 59–60
voting rights and participation, 49–51
abusive electoral discourse, 56–59
responses to, 59–60
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 127
African constitutions, 119–135
consensual democracy, 130–135
constitution-making process (Kenya), 111–112
democratic backsliding (Benin), 127–130
election integrity claims, 198–199
impact of constitutionalization (Kenya), 113–114, 118
number of democracy provisions, 105
parliamentary elections, 51–52, 125–126
political parties, 8–9, 13–14, 16–17, 112–113, 126–127, 130–135
presidential elections, 121–125
winner-takes-all politics, 130–134
African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 129–130, 132, 197–198
African Union
Election Observation Mission, 126
Lomé Declaration, 132
treaties (African Charter, ACDEG), 119–120, 126, 129–132
Alaska, 39, 41–42
Alemanno, Alberto, 151
Alternativ für Deutschland (AfD), 136, 146–147
Angola, 120
anti-discrimination laws, 87
anti-faction principle, 94–98
Anwar Ibrahim, 249–250, 254–255
Arendt, Hannah, 8
Australia, 5, 143, 163–164, 181–182
Bagehot, Walter, 175
Bainimarama, Frank, 50–51
ballot-access rules, 14, 32
Bangladesh, 188–189, 199
Barak, Aharon, 235, 237
Barber, N. W., 95
Barrett, Chairman John, 221
Bearpaw, George, 214
Begich, Nick, 39
Beitz, Charles R., 165
Benin, 123–126, 128–132
Berlusconi, Silvio, 197
Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand, 259
Bligh, Gur, 145
Boehner, John, 44
Bogdanor, Vernon, 2
Bolsonaro, Jair, 11, 57–58
Botswana, 121, 123
Brandeis, Louis, 8
Brazil, 11, 57–58
Brown, Byron, 42–43
Brunei, 103
Buffalo, New York State, 42–43
Burke, Edmund, 66
Burkina Faso, 123–124, 199
Burlington, Vermont, 39
Burundi, 128, 133
Bush, George W., 36
by-law clauses, 8–9
Byrd, Joe, 214–215
Cambodia, 14, 53–54, 114–115
Camby, Jean-Pierre, 198
Cameroon, 123
Canada, 158, 178, 205
candidates
eligibility rules, 123–124, 211–213, 220
exclusion/disqualification, 200–201, 214, 217
cartels, 70, 94
Carter Center, 56–57
Cavanaugh, Kathleen, 150
Chavez, Hugo, 55
Cherokee Nation, 209–218
constitutional development to 1995, 210–214
independent commission/1999 Constitutional Convention, 214–216
new Constitution of 1999, 216–218
original territory and removal, 210–211
Presidential approval provision, 213, 216–217
Chhibber, Pradeep K., 89–90
Chile, 115
Chilton, Adam, 127, 156
Chiluba, Fredrick, 203
China, 16
Choudhry, Sujit, 16–17
Citizen Potawatomi Nation, 209–210, 218–220
citizens’ assemblies, 75, 77
citizenship laws, 50, 211–212
closed list voting systems, 75–76
Colombia, 105
command-and-control (first-order) models, 12–17, 87–88
comparative political process theory, 191–193
Condorcet, Nicolas de, 35
Congo, Democratic Republic, 121, 128
Congo, Republic, 123
Connecticut, 41–42
consensual democracy, 130–135
Conserve, Philip E., 88
constitutional conventions, 210–216
constitutional courts
alternatives to, 150
fourth-branch bodies compared, 191–193, 201–205
as judicialization of politics, 101
minority representation cases (US), 31–34
parliamentary mandate case (Czechia), 238–242
partisan courts, 101–102, 114–117, 188, 203
party ban cases, 227–238
role in constitutional law, 188–201
constitutional theory, 190–194
taxonomy of judicial responsibilities, 194–201
election integrity, 198–200
electoral system review, 197–198
entry rules for voters, candidates and parties, 195–197
exit rules for candidates and parties, 200–201
constitutional entrenchment, 5–7
constitutional rights, contingent nature, 155–156
constitutional scholarship, 65–66, 139–141, 172–173, 186
constitutional supremacy, 4–5
constitutionalization of democracy
functions
building consensual democracy, 130–135
coordination, 110–111
hands-tying, 101, 111
illustration (Kenya), 111–114
providing clarity, 101, 110–111
growth in, 100–101, 103–107
guiding principles (political parties), 79–98
antifactionism, 94–98
party system optimality, 88–92
party-state separation, 92–94
purposive autonomy, 80–88
political parties and voting systems, design features, 186–187
relationship with regime type, 106–109
right to vote, 162–167
role of courts, 101–102, 114–117
cordons sanitaires, 146
Côte d’Ivoire
electoral commission law impartiality, 197–198
eligibility of candidates for high office, 120, 122
judicial involvement in 2010 election, 188–189
parliamentary elections, 125
rights of opposition parties, 133–134
Cuba, 16
Czechia, 138–139, 238–243
democratic governance, key values, 171, 174–175
diaspora voting, 216, 219–220
direct democracy
aims and risks, 20–21
constitutionalization, 100, 102–103, 105
high transaction costs, 70
Dixon, Rosalind, 153, 164
Djibouti, 123
dominant party systems, 15–17
Downs, William M., 146
Duterte, Rodrigo, 11, 148
Duverger, Maurice, 64, 175
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 121
elected officials
immunity of, 8, 83
removal of, 8, 200–201, 214, 216
election integrity, 188, 198–200
electoral boundaries and maps, 19, 88, 197, 211, 213–214, 217
electoral commissions, 52–53, 55–56, 88, 105, 191–193, 201
electoral discourse, 56–59
electoral fraud accusations, 56–60, 214
electoral freedom and fairness
importance to democracy, 47–48
protection of, 48
undermining, 48–60
abusive constitutional borrowing concept and forms, 47–49
abusive electoral discourse, 56–59
electoral Commissions and fraud, 55–56
electoral equality and quotas, 51
electoral integrity, 52–53, 56–59
militant democracy and party banning, 53–55
responses to, 59–60
voting rights and participation, 49–51
electoral monitors, 52–53, 55–57, 88, 105, 191–193, 201
electoral quotas, 51, 197
electoral systems
absentee voters, 216, 219–220
African constitutions, 121–126
parliamentary elections, 125–126
presidential elections, 121–122
ballot-access rules, 14, 32
candidates
eligibility rules, 123–124, 211–213, 220
exclusion/disqualification, 200–201, 214, 217
closed party lists, 197
constitutionalization, 100, 102–103, 105–106, 110
majoritarianism
majority-vote mechanisms, 35–36
minority interests, balance with, 29–34
plurality voting, impact of, 36–37
re-assertion of majority winners, 37–45
design defects of political structures, 42–45
voting rule reform, 37–40
voting system reform, 40–42
majority party bonus, 197
multiparty systems
arguments for/against, 144
ideological axis, 89–91
minority winners, 34, 36–37
reconciling values of democratic governance, 178–181
one-party systems, 16, 74, 94
popular elections, 212
proportional representation, 144, 178
ranked-choice voting (RCV), 38–40
runoff elections, 36–38
sore-loser laws, 32, 41–42
supermajorities, 32
two-party systems
arguments for/against, 144
as cartels, 94
first-past-the-post and, 64
ideological axis, 89–91
reconciling values of democratic governance, 177–181
voice voting, 211–212
Elkins, Zachary, 53, 200
Emmanuel, Rahm, 43
Erdogan, Recep Tayip, 115, 178
eternity clauses, 13, 222–243
parliamentary mandates, 238–242
party bans, 224–238
antidemocratic parties, 227–230
ethnic, separatist and religious parties, 230–234
indirect party bans, 234–238
Ethiopia, 121
European Court of Human Rights, 197, 229, 232–234
European Union, 151–152
European’s People Party (EPP), 151–152
extra-territorial voters, 216, 220
factions, 11, 18–19, 30, 34, 39, 94–98
Fidesz party (Hungary), 148, 151–152
Fiji, 50–51
first-order regulation, 12–17, 87–88
Foley, Ned, 39
Fombad, Charles, 126–127
fourth-branch bodies, 52–53, 55–56, 88, 105, 191–193, 201
France
2022 presidential election, 36–38, 40
electoral boundaries, 197
Macron presidency, 36, 180–181, 186
regulation of political parties, 138, 143
fraud accusations, 56–60, 214
Gabon, 127
Galston, William, 34
Gambia, The, 121
Gandhi, Indira, 201
Ganghof, Steffen, 182–183
Gardbaum, Stephen, 189, 191–193
Gbagbo, Laurent, 188
gender quotas, 51, 197
Georgia (US), 37–38
Germany
far-right lite parties, 136, 146–147
purposive autonomy principle, 85
regulation of antidemocratic parties, 13–14, 53, 139, 143–144, 195, 227–230, 242
vote thresholds, 196
Gerring, John, 89
gerrymandering, 19, 88
Ghai, Yash Pal, 111–112
Ghana, 127, 195
Ginsburg, Tom, 53, 152, 200, 259
Gore, Al, 36
Gould, Jonathan S., 171
Greece, 105
guarantor institutions (fourth-branch bodies), 52–53, 55–56, 88, 105, 191–193, 201
Hailsham, Lord, 178
Harding, Andrew, 258–259
Heraclitus, 93
Hoskin, Chief Chuck, 218, 221
Houphouët-Boigny, Félix, 188
Hughes, Edel, 150
human rights instruments, 145, 164
human rights judgments, 129–130, 197–198, 229, 232–234
Hungary, 50, 149, 151–152, 178, 222
Huq, Aziz, 152
impeachment, 200
India
approach to undemocratic parties, 14
citizenship laws, 50
disqualification disputes, 201
felon disenfranchment, 195
floor-crossing by legislators, 17
judiciary, 203
local council reserved seats, 51
political axes, 90
rise of Narendra Modi, 11, 152, 203
state electoral bonds, 16
voting systems, 97–98
Indonesia, 197, 201
International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, 164
Ireland, 197
Iroquois Confederacy, 207
Ismail Sabri Yaakob, 256
Israel, 14, 17, 138–139, 234–238, 243
Issacharoff, Samuel, 17
Italy, 196–197
Jackson, Andrew, 210
Juan Carlos I, King of Spain, 259
judicial review. See constitutional courts
Kaczyński, Jarosław, 149
Katz, Richard, 70, 94
Kedar, Nir, 237
Kelsen, Hans, 109, 191
Kenya
Building Bridges Initiative, 113–260
constitution-making process, 111–112
election management provisions, 52, 112–113
impact of constitutionalization, 113–114, 118
number of constitutional democracy provisions, 105
parliamentary elections, 125
presidential elections, 121–122, 198–199, 202
prisoner voting rights, 195
regulation of political parties, 8–9, 14, 112–113
reserved seats, 51
Kenyatta, Uhuru, 198–199
Khaitan, Tarunabh, 127, 152, 182–183, 191–193
Kobkua Suwannathat-Pian, 258
Kommers, D. P., 139
Korea, Workers Party of, 16
Landau, David, 153, 164
Laos, 16
Latvia, 144
Law and Justice (PiS) party (Poland), 148–149, 151
Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 143
Le Pen, Marine, 36, 40
Lemont, Eric, 209–210
Lesotho, 121
Levinson, Daryl J., 140, 149, 152
Liberia, 105, 118
Libya, 106
Lidauer, Michael, 52
Lieberman, Joe, 41–42
Liechtenstein, 105
Lithuania, 144
Loewenstein, Karl, 12–13, 110
Lomé Declaration, 132
Louisiana, 37
Macron, Emmanuel, 36, 180–181, 186
Madison, James, 18–19, 35, 42, 66, 104, 138, 155
Maduro, Nicolas, 55–56
Mahathir Mohamad, 249–250, 252
Mair, Peter, 10, 70, 94
majoritarianism
majority-vote mechanisms, 35–36
minority interests, balance with, 29–34
plurality voting, impact of, 36–37
re-assertion of majority winners, 37–45
design defects of political structures, 42–45
voting rule reform, 37–40
voting system reform, 40–42
Malawi, 122–123, 126–128
Malaysian monarchy, 244–259
constitutional role and powers of monarch, 248, 250
election of monarch, 247–248
historical background, 246–247
interventions in contemporary practice
government formation in 2020, 249–252
government suspension in 2021, 253–256
reflections on, 257–260
Masri, Mazen, 235
Massachusetts, 35
Mauritius, 121
McCargo, Duncan, 55
McConnell, Mitch, 43
median voter theorem, 43–44
Mélenchon, Jean-Luc, 40
militant democracy
constitutionalization, 102–103, 110
party bans
antidemocratic parties, 13, 53–55, 87–88, 110, 195–197, 227–230, 242
ethnic, separatist and religious parties, 13, 230–234
frequency of use, 144–145
human rights implications, 145
indirect party bans, 234–238
reconsideration of, 145
unamendability, 224–238, 242–243
use by military regimes, 115–117
as regulatory model, 12–15
soft militant democracy, 14
military influence in politics, 115–117
minority representation
electoral quotas, 51, 197
invalid vote threshold, 196
US right to vote, 31–34, 87, 159–160, 165
Mississippi, 36–37
Modi, Narendra, 11, 152, 203
monarchy
absolute monarchies, 103
African monarchies, 121
elective monarchies, 247–248
Malaysian monarchy, 244–259
constitutional role and powers of monarch, 248, 250
election of monarch, 247–248
historical background, 246–247
interventions in contemporary practice
government formation in 2020, 249–252
government suspension in 2021, 253–256
reflections on, 257–260
power of monarch in Thailand, 259–260
Montroll, Andy, 39
Morocco, 121
Muhyiddin Yassin, 249–250, 252–256
Müller, Jan-Werner, 14, 145
multiparty systems
arguments for/against, 144
ideological axis, 89–91
minority winners, 34, 36–37
reconciling values of democratic governance, 178–181
Murkowski, Lisa, 41–42
Myanmar, 52–53
Namibia, 121
national consensus principle, 130–135
National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), 147, 228–230
Native American constitutions, 206–221
Cherokee Nation, 209–218
constitutional development to 1995, 210–214
independent commission/1999 Constitutional Convention, 214–216
new Constitution of 1999, 216–218
original territory and removal, 210–211
Presidential approval issue, 213, 216–217
Citizen Potawatomi Nation, 209–210, 218–220
dynamic nature of, 206, 208
Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), 207, 218
initial adoption of written constitutions, 207–208
significance of constitutional reform, 208–209
Navalny, Alexei, 189
Nazrin Shah, Sultan of Perak, 257
Nepal, 118
New York City, 37–38
Ngulube, Mathew, 203
Nigeria, 115, 121–123, 126–128, 199
Obasanjo, Olusegun, 130
Ocasio-Cortez, Alexandria, 42
Odinga, Raila, 198
one-party systems, 16, 94
opposition empowerment, 130–135, 152
Orban, Viktor, 178, 222
Ossoff, Jon, 38
Ouattara, Alassane, 188
Pakistan, 115
Pal, Michael, 203
parliamentary mandates, 238–242
parliamentary systems, and values of democratic governance, 177–178
party system optimality principle, 88–92
party-state separation principle, 92–94
Pech, Laurent, 151
People’s Labour Party (Turkey), 231
Perdue, David, 38
Perot, Ross, 100
Philippines, 11, 148
Pildes, Richard H., 17, 140–141, 149, 152
plurality systems
arguments for/against, 144
ideological axis, 89–91
minority winners, 34, 36–37
reconciling values of democratic governance, 178–181
Poland, 13, 144, 148–149, 151
political parties
African constitutions, 8–9, 14, 16–17, 112–113, 126–127
cartel parties, 70, 94
challenges to democratic governance
antidemocratic parties in government, 148
far-right lite parties, 136, 143–148
general problem, 175–176
overview, 10–12
polarization, fragmentation and hyper-partizanship, 171–181
populist capture/subversion of established parties, 11, 148–149
constitutional scholarship, 65–66, 139–141
constitutionalization
functions, 109–111
growth in, 100, 103–105
guiding principles, 79–98
antifactionism, 94–98
party system optimality, 88–92
party-state separation, 92–94
purposive autonomy, 80–88
factions distinguished, 95–96
fragmentation and weakness, 33–34, 43, 172, 177
funding
campaign finance, 161–162
state funding, 83–84, 143
idealized functions, 69–79
mediation between state and people, 69–73, 78
reduction of costs, 74–77
ally prediction costs, 77
policy packaging costs, 76–77
political participation costs, 74–75
voters’ information costs, 75–76
training role, 78
ideology, 88–90
importance to democracy, 9
internal party democracy, 14–15, 40–43, 85–88
losing parties, 9
opposition parties, 130–135, 152
plenary character, 72–73
policies, 72–73, 76–77, 85, 174
political science scholarship, 64–65, 139–140
public duties, 84–86
public vs private nature, 80–82
regulation
cordons sanitaires, 146
election system changes, 144
first-order regulation, 12–17, 87–88
media restrictions, 143
new approaches, 149–153
incentivizing opposition rights, 152
international mechanisms, 151–152
nonjudicial options, 150–151
tiered constitutional amendment, 153
one-off restrictions, 143
party bans
antidemocratic parties, 13, 53–55, 87–88, 110, 195–197, 227–230, 242
ethnic, separatist and religious parties, 13, 230–234
frequency of use, 144–145
human rights implications, 145
indirect party bans, 234–238
reconsideration of, 145
unamendability, 224–238, 242–243
use by military regimes, 115–117
registration requirements, 142
second-order regulation, 12, 18–20, 86–88
use of general law, 14, 143
vote thresholds, 142–143, 196–197, 232
political science scholarship, 64–65, 139–140, 172–173
Popp-Madsen, Benjamin Ask, 15
popular elections, 212
populist leaders, 11, 30, 54–55, 58, 148–149, 178
post-colonial constitutionalism, 208–209
presidential systems, and values of democratic governance, 178–180, 183–185
primary elections, 40–43
prisoners, right to vote, 120, 158, 195
proportional representation, 144, 178–180, 196
public/private actor distinction, 80–81
purposive autonomy principle, 80–88
racial equality, 31–34, 51, 87, 159–160, 165, 211
ranked-choice voting (RCV), 38–40, 42, 97
Rauch, Jonathan, 30
referendums, 212
Renshaw, Catherine, 52
Renzi, Matteo, 197
rerun elections, 217–218
Rhode Island, 36
Rosenblum, Nancy L., 96
Rosenbluth, Frances McCall, 10, 73, 144
round-robin voting, 39–40
Roznai, Yaniv, 231
runoff elections, 36–38
Russia, 189
Rwanda, 51, 134
Sartori, Giovanni, 64, 71–72, 74, 89–90, 95
Saudi Arabia, 103
Schattschneider, E. E., 9, 195
Scheppele, Kim Lane, 10, 67, 89–90
Scott, Rick, 57
second-order regulation, 12, 17–20, 86–88
semi-parliamentarianism, 172–173, 181–183
semi-presidentialism, 180–181, 185–186
Senegal, 123–124, 128, 133
Sethiya, Aradhya, 138
Seychelles, 133
Shapiro, Ian, 10, 73, 144
Shklar, Judith, 165
single-party models, 16, 94
social media influence, 162
soft militant democracy, 14
sore-loser laws, 32, 41–42
sortition, 70, 75
South Africa
dominant party system, 16–17
electoral oversight, 52, 201–202
equal treatment of parties, 127
form of parliamentary system, 121
presidential elections, 123
prisoner voting rights, 195
South Korea, 138–139
Spain, 138–139, 259
Sri Lanka, 105–106
Stopp, Rune Møller, 15
structural rights theory, 160–161
supermajorities, 32
Swaziland, 119
Taiwan, 198, 202
Talon, Patrice, 124
Tanzania, 121, 123, 129, 199
Thailand, 54–55, 105, 115–117, 259–260
Thaksin Shinawatra, 54–55, 112–117
Thanathorn Juangroongruangkit, 117
Thiel, Stefan, 147
Togo, 121–122
Top-4 primaries, 41
Trump, Donald, 11, 49, 57, 60, 148
Tunisia, 120, 134
Turkey, 144–145, 178, 230–234, 242–243
Tushnet, Mark V., 204–205
two-party systems
arguments for/against, 144
as cartels, 94
first-past-the-post and, 64
ideological axis, 89–91
reconciling values of democratic governance, 177–181
Uganda, 123
Ukraine, 231
Ulloa, Jazmine, 58
unamendability, 13, 222–243
parliamentary mandates, 238–242
party bans, 224–238
antidemocratic parties, 227–230
ethnic, separatist and religious parties, 230–234
indirect party bans, 234–238
unconstitutional constitutional amendment doctrines, 13, 222–223, 225
United Arab Emirates, 103
United Kingdom
government pre-Brexit, 178, 259
Human Rights Act, 81
party proscription process, 150–151
role in Malaysian history, 246–247
theshold to enter parliament, 142–143
unwritten constitution, 164, 175–176
United States. See also Native American constitutions
campaign finance rules, 161–162
constitutional democracy provisions, 103–105
design of federal judiciary, 203
duopoly system, 17, 138
electoral fraud, 59
fragmented political parties, 33–34
law of democracy literature, 140–141
minority representation cases, 31–34
party primaries, 40–43
right to vote, 31–34, 87, 159–160, 163, 165
rise of Donald Trump, 11, 49, 57, 60, 148
second-order regulatory model, 18–19
sore-loser laws, 32, 41–42
suppression of communist parties, 143
voter registration rules, 50
Voting Rights Act (VRA), 32, 38
voting systems, 35–39
Venezuela, 55–56
Venice Commission, 145, 148–149
Verma, Rahul, 89–90
Vermont, 35–36
Versteeg, Mila, 127, 156
Vietnam, 16
voice voting, 211–212
vote thresholds, 142–143, 196–197, 232
voting rights, 155–168
Cherokee Nation, 211
constitutionalization of
effectiveness, 162–164
expressive functions, 165–166
subconstitutional regulation, 166
undermining of democracy, 166–167
eligibility rules, 157–160, 195
information costs, 75–76
institutional dimension, 160–162
partisan practices and restrictions, 49–51
prisoners, 120, 158, 195
voting systems. See electoral systems
Wako, Amos, 112
Walkingstick, David, 217
Walton, India, 42–43
Warren, Chief Justice Earl, 31
Weber, Max, 205
Welfare Party (Turkey), 232–234
Welikala, Asanga, 251
West Virginia, 32
White, Jonathan, 96
winner-takes-all politics, 130–134
Ypi, Lea, 96
Zambia, 123, 126–128, 203
Zemmour, Eric, 36
Zimbabwe, 16–17

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  • Index
  • Edited by Tom Ginsburg, University of Chicago, Aziz Z. Huq, University of Chicago, Tarun Khaitan, London School of Economics and Political Science
  • Book: The Entrenchment of Democracy
  • Online publication: 16 December 2024
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009447713.017
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  • Index
  • Edited by Tom Ginsburg, University of Chicago, Aziz Z. Huq, University of Chicago, Tarun Khaitan, London School of Economics and Political Science
  • Book: The Entrenchment of Democracy
  • Online publication: 16 December 2024
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009447713.017
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  • Index
  • Edited by Tom Ginsburg, University of Chicago, Aziz Z. Huq, University of Chicago, Tarun Khaitan, London School of Economics and Political Science
  • Book: The Entrenchment of Democracy
  • Online publication: 16 December 2024
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009447713.017
Available formats
×