Book contents
- Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Birds
- Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation
- Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Birds
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Mountain Birds and Their Habitats
- 2 Avian Adaptations to High Mountain Habitats
- 3 Global Bird Communities of Alpine and Nival Habitats
- 4 Birds of Treeline Ecotones
- 5 Population Trends of Mountain Birds in Europe and North America
- 6 Climate Change Impacts on Mountain Birds
- 7 Anthropogenic Activities and Mountain Birds
- 8 Modelling Large-Scale Patterns in Mountain Bird Diversity and Distributions
- 9 The Alpine Avifauna of Tropical Mountains
- 10 Priorities for Information, Research and Conservation of Birds in High Mountains
- Bird Species Index
- Subject Index
- Plate Section (PDF Only)
- References
2 - Avian Adaptations to High Mountain Habitats
Solving the Challenges of Living in Alpine Ecosystems
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 30 June 2023
Book contents
- Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Birds
- Ecology, Biodiversity and Conservation
- Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Birds
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Mountain Birds and Their Habitats
- 2 Avian Adaptations to High Mountain Habitats
- 3 Global Bird Communities of Alpine and Nival Habitats
- 4 Birds of Treeline Ecotones
- 5 Population Trends of Mountain Birds in Europe and North America
- 6 Climate Change Impacts on Mountain Birds
- 7 Anthropogenic Activities and Mountain Birds
- 8 Modelling Large-Scale Patterns in Mountain Bird Diversity and Distributions
- 9 The Alpine Avifauna of Tropical Mountains
- 10 Priorities for Information, Research and Conservation of Birds in High Mountains
- Bird Species Index
- Subject Index
- Plate Section (PDF Only)
- References
Summary
Alpine birds face many challenges to live in habitats characterized by low temperatures, high winds, short growing seasons and delayed breeding schedules. Breeding in alpine environments is always a race against time due to the shortened egg laying period and frequent storms that may result in delayed development or reproductive failure. Since daily temperatures in the alpine zone can range from below freezing to >450C, developing embryos may require cooling as well as heating to maintain homeothermy. To cope with such conditions, birds breeding in alpine habitats have developed physiological, morphological and behavioural adaptations, and have adopted a slower lifestyle where they may produce fewer offspring each year compared to populations at low elevations, but may live longer. In the northern hemisphere, only a few birds live exclusively in the alpine zone, with many mountain species breeding in both alpine and lower elevation habitats, while in the Southern Andes, most alpine birds breed exclusively above the treeline. In summary, there may be high ecological costs to living in open habitats at high elevations. However, alpine birds likely experience lower levels of interspecific competition, habitat degradation and parasites and diseases than birds living at lower elevations.
Keywords
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Ecology and Conservation of Mountain Birds , pp. 35 - 89Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2023
References
Altamirano, T.A., Ibarra, J.T., de la Maza, M., Navarrete, S.A. & Bonacic, C. (2015) Reproductive strategy on a secondary cavity-nester across an elevational gradient in Andean temperate ecosystems. Auk, 132, 826–835.Google Scholar
Altamirano, T.A., Honorato, M.T., Ibarra, J.T., et al. (2019) Elevation has contrasting effects on avian and mammalian nest traits in temperate mountains. Austral Ecology, 44, 691–701.Google Scholar
Altamirano, T.A., de Zwaan, D.R., Ibarra, J.T., Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2020) Treeline ecotones shape the distribution of avian species richness and functional diversity in south temperate mountains. Scientific Reports, 10, e18428.Google Scholar
Altamirano, T.A., de Zwaan, D.R., Scridel, D., Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2022) Rock cavity nesting as the norm: alpine breeding birds in the south temperate Andes Mountains. Ecology, 104, e3931.Google Scholar
Altshuler, D.L. & Dudley, R. (2006) The physiology and biomechanics of avian flight at high altitude. Integrative Comparative Biology, 46, 62–71.Google Scholar
Apfelbeck, B. & Goymann, W. (2011) Ignoring the challenge? Male black redstarts (Phoenicurus ochruros) do not increase testosterone levels during territorial conflicts but they do so in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 278, 3233–3242.Google Scholar
Arendt, J.D. (1997) Adaptive intrinsic growth rates: an integration across taxa. Quarterly Review of Biology, 72, 149–177.Google Scholar
Arredondo-Amezcua, L., Martén-Rodríguez, S., Lopezaraiza-Mikel, M., et al. (2018) Hummingbirds in high alpine habitats of the tropical Mexican mountains: new elevational records and ecological considerations. Avian Conservation and Ecology, 13 , 14.Google Scholar
Arlettaz, R., Patthey, P., Baltic, M., et al. (2007) Spreading free-riding snow sports represent a novel serious threat for wildlife. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 274, 1219–1224.Google Scholar
Badyaev, A.V. (1997) Altitudinal variation in sexual dimorphism: a new pattern and alternative hypotheses. Behavoural Ecology, 8, 675–690.Google Scholar
Badyaev, A. & Ghalambor, C.K. (2001) Avian life-history strategies in relation to elevation: evidence for a trade-off between fecundity and parental care. Ecology, 82 , 2948–2960.Google Scholar
Balasubramaniam, P. & Rotenberry, J.T. (2016) Elevation and latitude interact to drive life‐history variation in precocial birds: a comparative analysis using galliformes. Journal of Animal Ecology, 85, 1528–1539.Google Scholar
Banzett, R.B., Butler, J.P., Nations, C.S., et al. (1987) Inspiratory aerodynamic valving in goose lungs depends on gas density and velocity. Respiration Physiology, 70, 287–300.Google Scholar
Barras, A.G., Marti, S., Ettlin, S., et al. (2020) The importance of seasonal environmental factors in the foraging habitat selection of Alpine Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus alpestris. Ibis, 162, 505–519.Google Scholar
Barras, A.G., Liechti, F. & Arlettaz, R. (2021) Seasonal and daily movement patterns of an alpine passerine suggest high flexibility in relation to environmental conditions. Journal of Avian Biology, 52, jav.02860.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barve, S., Dhondt, A.A., Mathur, V.B., Ishtiaq, F. & Cheviron, Z.A. (2016) Life-history characteristics influence physiological strategies to cope with hypoxia in Himalayan birds. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 283, 20162201.Google Scholar
Barve, S., Ramesh, V., Dotterer, T.M. & Dove, C.J. (2021) Elevation and body size drive convergent variation in thermo-insulative feather structure of Himalayan birds. Ecography, 44, 680–689.Google Scholar
Bastianelli, G., Seoane, J., Álvarez-Blanco, P. & Laiolo, P. (2015) The intensity of male-male interactions declines in highland songbird populations. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology, 69, 1493–1500.Google Scholar
Bastianelli, G., Tavecchia, G., Meléndez, L., et al. (2017) Surviving at high elevations: an inter-and intra-specific analysis in a mountain bird community. Oecologia, 184, 293–303.Google Scholar
Bears, H., Smith, J. & Wingfield, J. (2003) Adrenocortical sensitivity to stress in dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis oregonus) breeding in low and high elevation habitat. Ecoscience, 10, 127–133.Google Scholar
Bears, H., Drever, M.C. & Martin, K. (2008) Comparative morphology of dark-eyed juncos Junco hyemalis breeding at two elevations: a common aviary experiment. Journal of Avian Biology, 39, 152–162.Google Scholar
Bears, H., Martin, K. & White, G.C. (2009) Breeding in high-elevation habitat results in shift to slower life-history strategy within a single species. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78, 365–375.Google Scholar
Bergmann, C. (1847) Ueber die Verhältnisse der Wärmeökonomie der Thiere zu ihrer Grösse. Göttinger Studien, 1, 595–708.Google Scholar
Bettega, C., Fernández-González, Á., Ramón Obeso, J. & Delgado, M.D.M. (2020) Circannual variation in habitat use of the White-winged Snowfinch Montifringilla nivalis nivalis. Ibis, 162, 1251–1261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billerman, S.M., Keeney, B.K., Rodewald, P.G. & Schulenberg, T.S. (2022) Birds of the World. Ithaca: Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Bishop, C.M., Ward, S., Woakes, A.J. & Butler, P.J. (2002) The energetics of barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis) flying in captive and wild conditions. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A, 133, 225–237.Google Scholar
Black, C.P. & Tenney, S.M. (1980) Oxygen transport during progressive hypoxia in high-altitude and sea-level waterfowl. Respiration Physiology, 39, 217–239.Google Scholar
Bocca, M., Caprio, E., Chamberlain, D. & Rolando, A. (2014) The winter roosting and diet of Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix in the north-western Italian Alps. Journal of Ornithology, 155, 183–194.Google Scholar
Bollmann, K. & Reyer, H.U. (2001) Reproductive success of Water Pipits in an alpine environment. Condor, 103, 510–520.Google Scholar
Borras, T., Senar, J. & Cabrera, J. (2010) Hematocrit variation in response to altitude changes in wild birds: a repeated-measures design. Condor, 112, 622–626.Google Scholar
Boyce, A.J., Freeman, B.G., Mitchell, A.E. & Martin, T.E. (2015) Clutch size declines with elevation in tropical birds. Auk, 132, 424–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyce, A.J., Shakya, S., Sheldon, F.H., Moyle, R.G. & Martin, T.E. (2019) Biotic interactions are the dominant drivers of phylogenetic and functional structure in bird communities along a tropical elevational gradient. Auk, 136, 1–14.Google Scholar
Boyle, W.A. (2008) Can variation in risk of nest predation explain altitudinal migration in tropical birds? Oecologia, 155, 397–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyle, W.A. (2011) Short‐distance partial migration of Neotropical birds: a community‐level test of the foraging limitation hypothesis. Oikos, 120, 1803–1816.Google Scholar
Boyle, W.A. (2017) Altitudinal bird migration in North America. Auk: Ornithological Advances, 134, 443–465.Google Scholar
Boyle, W.A. & Martin, K. (2015) The conservation value of high elevation habitats to North American migrant birds. Biological Conservation, 192, 461–476.Google Scholar
Boyle, W.A., Sandercock, B.K. & Martin, K. (2016) Patterns and drivers of intraspecific variation in avian life history along elevational gradients: a meta-analysis. Biological Reviews, 91, 469–482.Google Scholar
Boyle, W.A., Shogren, E.H. & Brawn, J.D. (2020) Hygric niches for tropical endotherms. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 35, 938–952.Google Scholar
Bowler, D.E., Kvasnes, M.A., Pedersen, H.C., Sandercock, B.K. & Nilsen, E.B. (2020) Impacts of predator-mediated interactions along a climatic gradient on the population dynamics of an alpine bird. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 287, 20202653.Google ScholarPubMed
Brambilla, M., Scridel, D., Sangalli, B., et al. (2019) Ecological factors affecting foraging behaviour during nestling rearing in a high-elevation species, the White-winged Snowfinch (Montifringilla nivalis). Ornis Fennica, 96, 142–151.Google Scholar
Burtt, E.H. (1986) An analysis of physical, physiological, and optical aspects of avian coloration with emphasis on wood-warblers. Ornithological Monographs, 38, 1–126.Google Scholar
Butler, L.K., Rohwer, S. & Speidel, M.G. (2008) Quantifying structural variation in contour feathers to address functional variation and life history trade‐offs. Journal of Avian Biology, 39, 629–639.Google Scholar
Calanca, P. (2007) Climate change and drought occurrence in the Alpine region: how severe are becoming the extremes? Global Planet Change, 57, 151–160.Google Scholar
Camfield, A.F. & Martin, K. (2009) The influence of ambient temperature on horned lark incubation behaviour in an alpine environment. Behaviour, 146, 1615–1633.Google Scholar
Camfield, A.F., Pearson, S. & Martin, K. (2010) Life history variation between high and low elevation subspecies of horned larks Eremophila spp. Journal of Avian Biology, 41, 273–281.Google Scholar
Carey, C. (1980) Adaptation of the avian egg to high altitude. American Zoologist, 20, 449–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, C. & Martin, K. (1997) Physiological ecology of incubation of ptarmigan eggs at high and low altitudes. Wildlife Biology, 3, 211–218.Google Scholar
Carey, C., Thompson, E.L., Vleck, C.M. & James, F.C. (1982) Avian reproduction over an altitudinal gradient: incubation period, hatchling mass, and embryonic oxygen consumption. Auk, 99, 710–718.Google Scholar
Carpenter, F.L. & Hixon, M.A. (1988) A new function for torpor: fat conservation in a wild migrant hummingbird. Condor, 90, 373–378.Google Scholar
Chai, P. & Dudley, R. (1996) Limits to flight energetics of hummingbirds hovering in hypodense and hypoxic gas mixtures. Journal of Experimental Biology, 199, 2285–2295.Google Scholar
Chan, W.-P., Chen, I.-C., Colwell, R.K., et al. (2016) Seasonal and daily climate variation have opposite effects on species elevational range size. Science, 351, 1437–1439.Google Scholar
Chevin, L.M. & Hoffmann, A.A. (2017) Evolution of phenotypic plasticity in extreme environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 372, 20160138.Google Scholar
Cheviron, Z.A., Whitehead, A. & Brumfield, R.T. (2008) Transcriptomic variation and plasticity in rufous-collared sparrows (Zonotrichia capensis) along an altitudinal gradient. Molecular Ecology, 17, 4556–4569.Google Scholar
Choy, E.S., O'Connor, R.S., Gilchrist, H.G., et al. (2021) Limited heat tolerance in a cold-adapted seabird: implications of a warming Arctic. Journal of Experimental Biology, 224, jeb242168.Google Scholar
Clement, P. & Arkhipov, V. (2020) Black-headed Mountain-Finch (Leucosticte brandti). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Cooper, C.B., Hochachka, W.M., Butcher, G. & Dhondt, A.A. (2005) Seasonal and latitudinal trends in clutch size: thermal constraints during laying and incubation. Ecology, 86, 2018–2031.Google Scholar
Conway, C.J. & Martin, T.E. (2000) Effects of ambient temperature on avian incubation behaviour. Behavioural Ecology, 11, 178–188.Google Scholar
Costanzi, J.M. & Steifetten, Ø. (2019) Island biogeography theory explains the genetic diversity of a fragmented rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) population. Ecology and Evolution, 9, 3837–3849.Google Scholar
Crisp, M.D. & Cook, L.G. (2012) Phylogenetic niche conservatism: what are the underlying evolutionary and ecological causes? New Phytologist, 196, 681–694.Google Scholar
de Andrés, E.G., Camarero, J.J. & Büntgen, U. (2015) Complex climate constraints of upper treeline formation in the Pyrenees. Trees, 29, 941–952.Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R. & Martin, K. (2018) Substrate and structure of ground nests have fitness consequences for an alpine songbird. Ibis, 160, 790–804.Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R., Greenwood, J.L. & Martin, K. (2017) Feather melanin and microstructure variation in dark‐eyed junco Junco hyemalis across an elevational gradient in the Selkirk Mountains. Journal of Avian Biology, 48, 552–562.Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R., Camfield, A.F., MacDonald, E.C. & Martin, K. (2019a) Variation in offspring development is driven more by weather and maternal condition than predation risk. Functional Ecology, 33, 447–456.Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R., Wilson, S., Gow, E.A. & Martin, K. (2019b) Sex-specific spatiotemporal variation and carry-over effects in a migratory alpine songbird. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 7, 285.Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R., Drake, A., Greenwood, J.L. & Martin, K. (2020) Timing and intensity of weather events shape nestling development strategies in three alpine breeding songbirds. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 359.Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R., Scridel, D., Altamirano, T.A., et al. (2022a) GABB: a global dataset of alpine breeding birds and their ecological traits. Scientific Data, 9, 627. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-022-01723-6Google Scholar
de Zwaan, D.R., Drake, A., Camfield, A.F., MacDonald, E.C. & Martin, K. (2022b) The relative influence of cross-seasonal and local weather effects on the breeding success of a migratory songbird. Journal of Animal Ecology, 91, 1458–1470.Google Scholar
Decker, K.L. & Conway, C.J. (2009) Effects of an unseasonable snowstorm on Red-faced Warbler nesting success. Condor, 111, 392–395.Google Scholar
Deeming, D.C. & Mainwaring, M.C. (2015) Functional properties of nests. In Nest, Eggs, and Incubation: New Ideas about Avian Reproduction. Deeming, D.C. & Reynolds, S.J. (eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29–49.Google Scholar
Devi, N.M., Kukarskih, V.V., Galimova, A.A., Mazepa, V.S. & Grigoriev, A.A. (2020) Climate change evidence in tree growth and stand productivity at the upper treeline ecotone in the Polar Ural Mountains. Forest Ecosystems, 7, 1–16.Google Scholar
Dixit, S., Joshi, V. & Barve, S. (2016) Bird diversity of the Amrutganga Valley, Kedarnath, Uttarakhand, India with an emphasis on the elevational distribution of species. Check List, 12, 1874.Google Scholar
Dorst, J. & Vuilleumier, F. (1986) Convergences in bird communities at high altitudes in the tropics (especially the Andes and Africa) and at temperate latitudes (Tibet). In High Altitude Tropical Biogeography. Vuilleumier, F. & Monasterio, M. (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 120–149.Google Scholar
Downs, C.T. & Brown, M. (2002) Nocturnal heterothermy and torpor in the Malachite Sunbird (Nectarinia famosa). Auk, 119, 251–260.Google Scholar
Dragon, S., Carey, C., Martin, K. & Baumann, R. (1999) Effect of high altitude and in vivo adenosine/(β)-adrenergic receptor blockade on ATP and 2, 3BPG concentrations in red blood cells of avian embryos. Journal of Experimental Biology, 202, 2787–2795.Google Scholar
Dubay, S.G. & Witt, C.C. (2014) Differential high-altitude adaptation and restricted gene flow across a mid-elevation hybrid zone in Andean tit-tyrant flycatchers. Molecular Ecology, 23, 3551–3565.Google Scholar
DuBay, S.G., Wu, Y., Scott, G.R., et al. (2020) Life history predicts flight muscle phenotype and function in birds. Journal of Animal Ecology, 89, 1262–1276.Google Scholar
Dubey, S. & Roulin, A. (2014) Evolutionary and biomedical consequences of internal melanins. Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research, 27, 327–338.Google Scholar
Elsen, P.R., Tingley, M.W., Kalyanaraman, R., Ramesh, K. & Wilcove, D.S. (2017a) The role of competition, ecotones, and temperature in the elevational distribution of Himalayan birds. Ecology, 98, 337–348.Google Scholar
Elsen, P.R., Kalyanaraman, R., Ramesh, K. & Wilcove, D.S. (2017b) The importance of agricultural lands for Himalayan birds in winter. Conservation Biology, 31, 416–426.Google Scholar
Evans, M.R. (1996) Nectar and flower production of Lobelia telekii inflorescences and their influence on territorial behaviour of the scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird (Nectarinia johnstoni). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 57, 89–105.Google Scholar
Evans Ogden, L.J., Martin, M. & Martin, K. (2012) Mating and breeding success decline with elevation for the Pacific Wren (Troglodytes pacificus) in coastal mountain forests. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 124, 270–276.Google Scholar
Evans Ogden, L.J., Martin, K. & Williams, T.D. (2013) Elevational differences in estimated fattening rates suggest high-elevation sites are high quality habitats for fall migration. Auk, 130, 98–106.Google Scholar
Fanelli, A., Menardi, G., Chiodo, M., et al. (2020) Gastroenteric parasite of wild Galliformes in the Italian Alps: implication for conservation management. Parasitology, 147, 471–477.Google Scholar
Fedy, B.C., Martin, K., Ritland, C. & Young, J. (2008) Genetic and ecological data provide incongruent interpretations of population structure and dispersal in naturally subdivided populations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucura). Molecular Ecology, 17, 1905–1917.Google Scholar
Franzoi, A., Tenan, S., Sanchez, P.L. & Pedrini, P. (2021) Temporal trends in abundance and phenology of migratory birds across the Italian Alps during a 20-year period. Rivista Italiana di Ornitologia, 91, 13–28.Google Scholar
Freeman, B.G. (2017) Little evidence for Bergmann's rule body size clines in passerines along tropical elevational gradients. Journal of Biogeography, 44, 502–510.Google Scholar
Galen, S.C., Natarajan, C., Moriyama, H., et al. (2015) Contribution of a mutational hot spot to hemoglobin adaptation in high-altitude Andean house wrens. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 13958–13963.Google Scholar
Gass, C.L. & Sutherland, G. (1985) Specialization by territorial hummingbirds on experimentally enriched patches of flowers: energetic profitability and learning. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 63, 2125–2133.Google Scholar
Goullaud, E.L., de Zwaan, D.R. & Martin, K. (2018) Predation risk-induced adjustments in provisioning behavior for Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris) in British Columbia. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 130, 180–190.Google Scholar
Grabherr, G. (2000) Biodiversity of mountain forests. In Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development: A State of Knowledge Report for 2000. Price, M.F. & Butt, N. (eds.). Wallingford: CABI International, pp. 28–38.Google Scholar
Graham, C.H., Parra, J.L., Tinoco, B.A., Stiles, F.G & Mcguire, J.A. (2012) Untangling the influence of ecological and evolutionary factors on trait variation across hummingbird assemblages. Ecology, 93 (Suppl.), S99–S111.Google Scholar
Greeney, H.F. (2013) The nest of the Ash-breasted Tit-tyrant (Anairetes alpinus). Ornitologia Colombiana, 13, 74–78.Google Scholar
Greenewalt, C.H. (1962) Dimensional Relationships for Flying Animals. In Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 1–46.Google Scholar
Gutierrez-Pinto, N., Londoño, G.A., Chappell, M.A. & Storz, J.F. (2021) A test of altitude-related variation in aerobic metabolism of Andean birds. Journal of Experimental Biology, 224, 1–6.Google Scholar
Hahn, T.P. (1998) Reproductive seasonality in an opportunistic breeder, the red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra. Ecology, 79, 2365–2375.Google Scholar
Hawkes, L., Balachandran, S., Batbayar, N., et al. (2011) The trans-Himalayan flights of bar-headed geese (Anser indicus). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 9516–9519.Google Scholar
Hardy, S.P., Hardy, D.R. & Gil, K.C. (2018) Avian nesting and roosting on glaciers at high elevation, Cordillera Vilcanota, Peru. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 130, 940–957.Google Scholar
Hendricks, P. & Norment, C.J. (1992) Effects of a severe snow storm on sub-alpine and alpine populations of nesting American Pipits. Journal of Field Ornithology, 63, 331–338.Google Scholar
Höhn, E.O. (1977) The “snowshoe effect” of the feathering on ptarmigan feet. Condor, 79, 380–382.Google Scholar
Hotaling, S., Wimberger, P.H., Kelley, J.L. & Watts, H.E. (2019) Macroinvertebrates on glaciers: a key resource for terrestrial food webs? Ecology, 101, e02947.Google Scholar
Hsiung, A.C., Boyle, W.A., Cooper, R.J. & Chandler, R.B. (2018) Altitudinal migration: ecological drivers, knowledge gaps, and conservation implications. Biological Reviews, 93, 2049–2070.Google Scholar
Huey, R.B., Kearney, M.R., Krockenberger, A., et al. (2012) Predicting organismal vulnerability to climate warming: roles of behaviour, physiology and adaptation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 367, 1665–1679.Google Scholar
Ibarra, J.T., Gálvez, N., Altamirano, T.A., et al. (2017) Seasonal dynamics of avian guilds inside and outside core protected areas in an Andean Biosphere Reserve of southern Chile. Bird Study, 64, 410–420.Google Scholar
Ishtiaq, F. & Barve, S. (2018) Do avian blood parasites influence hypoxia physiology in a high elevation environment? BMC Ecology, 18, 1–12.Google Scholar
Jaramillo, A. (2020) Puna Yellow-Finch (Sicalis lutea). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Jia, C.-X., Sun, Y.-H. & Swenson, J.E. (2010) Unusual incubation behavior and embryonic tolerance of hypothermia by the Blood Pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus). Auk, 127, 926–931.Google Scholar
Johnson, R.E. (2020) Black Rosy-Finch (Leucosticte atrata). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Johnson, D.H. & O’Neil, T.A. (2001) Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press.Google Scholar
Ke, D. & Lu, X. (2009) Burrow use by Tibetan Ground Tits Pseudopodoces humilis: coping with life at high altitudes. Ibis, 151, 321–331.Google Scholar
Kern, M.D. & Van Riper, III, C. (1984) Altitudinal variations in nests of the Hawaiian Honeycreeper Hemignathus virens virens. Condor, 86, 443–454.Google Scholar
Khaliq, I., Fritz, S.A., Prinzinger, R., et al. (2015) Global variation in thermal physiology of birds and mammals: evidence for phylogenetic niche conservatism only in the tropics. Journal of Biogeography, 42, 2187–2196.Google Scholar
Kumar, L., Skidmore, A.K. & Knowles, E. (1997) Modelling topographic variation in solar radiation in a GIS environment. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 11, 475–497.Google Scholar
Lague, S.L., Chua, B., Farrell, A.P., Wang, Y. & Milsom, W.K. (2016) Altitude matters: differences in cardiovascular and respiratory responses to hypoxia in bar-headed geese reared at high and low altitudes. Journal of Experimental Biology, 219, 1974–1984.Google Scholar
Lahti, D.C. & Ardia, D.R. (2016) Shedding light on bird egg color: Pigment as parasol and the dark car effect. American Naturalist, 187, 547–563.Google Scholar
Laiolo, P., Rolando, A. & Carisio, L. (2001) Winter movements of the alpine chough: implications for management in the Alps. Journal of Mountain Ecology, 6, 21–30.Google Scholar
Laiolo, P., Illera, J.C., Meléndez, L., Segura, A. & Obeso, J.R. (2015a) Abiotic, biotic, and evolutionary control of the distribution of C and N isotopes in food webs. American Naturalist, 185, 169–182.Google Scholar
Laiolo, P., Seoane, J., Illera, J.C., et al. (2015b) The evolutionary convergence of avian lifestyles and their constrained coevolution with species’ ecological niche. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 282, 20151808.Google Scholar
Landmann, A. & Winding, N. (1995) Guild organisation and morphology of high-altitude granivorous and insectivorous birds: convergent evolution in an extreme environment. Oikos, 73, 237–250.Google Scholar
Lauer, W. & Klaus, D. (1975) Geoecological investigations on the timberline of Pico de Orizaba, Mexico. Arctic Alpine Research, 7, 315–330.Google Scholar
Laybourne, R.C. (1974) Collision between a vulture and an aircraft at an altitude of 37,000 feet. Wilson Bulletin, 86, 461–462.Google Scholar
Lei, F.M., Qu, Y.H., Gan, Y.L., Gebauer, A. & Kaiser, M. (2002) The feather microstructure of passerine sparrows in China. Journal of Ornithology, 143, 205.Google Scholar
Li, Y., Li, S., Guo, C., et al. (2015) Nest helpers improve parental survival but not offspring production in a high-elevation passerine, the Ground Tit Pseudopodoces humilis. Ibis, 157, 567–574.Google Scholar
Lindström, Å., Alerstam, T., Andersson, A., et al. (2021) Extreme altitude changes between night and day during marathon flights of great snipes. Current Biology, 31, 3433–3439.Google Scholar
Lisovski, S., van Dijk, J.G., Klinkenberg, D., et al. (2018) The roles of migratory and resident birds in local avian influenza infection dynamics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 55, 2963–2975.Google Scholar
Lloyd, P., Little, R.M., Crowe, T.M. & Simmons, R.E. (2001) Rainfall and food availability as factors influencing the migration and breeding activity of Namaqua Sandgrouse, Pterocles namaqua. Ostrich, 72, 50–62.Google Scholar
Londoño, G.A., Chappell, M.A., Castañeda, M. del R., Jankowski, J.E. & Robinson, S.K. (2015) Basal metabolism in tropical birds: latitude, altitude, and the ‘pace of life.’ Functional Ecology, 29, 338–346.Google Scholar
Londoño, G.A., Chappell, M.A., Jankowski, J.E. & Robinson, S.K. (2017) Do thermoregulatory costs limit altitude distributions of Andean forest birds? Functional Ecology, 31, 204–215.Google Scholar
Lu, X., Ke, D., Guo, Y., et al. (2011) Breeding ecology of the Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros at a Tibetan site, with special reference to cooperative breeding. Ardea, 99, 235–240.Google Scholar
Lundblad, C.G. & Conway, C.J. (2020) Testing four hypotheses to explain partial migration: balancing reproductive benefits with limits to fasting endurance. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology, 74, 26.Google Scholar
Lustick, S. (1984) Thermoregulation in adult seabirds. In Seabird Energetics. Whittow, G.C. (ed.). Boston: Springer, pp. 183–201.Google Scholar
MacDonald, E.C., Camfield, A.F., Jankowski, J.E. & Martin, K. (2013) Extended incubation recesses for alpine breeding Horned Larks: a strategy for dealing with inclement weather? Journal of Field Ornithology, 84, 58–68.Google Scholar
MacDonald, E.C., Camfield, A.F., Jankowski, J.E. & Martin, K. (2014) An alpine-breeding songbird can adjust dawn incubation rhythms to annual thermal regimes. Auk, 131, 495–506.Google Scholar
MacDonald, E.C., Camfield, A.F., Martin, M., Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2016) Nest-site selection and consequences for nest survival among three sympatric songbirds in an alpine environment. Journal of Ornithology, 157, 393–405.Google Scholar
MacDougall-Shackleton, S.A., Johnson, R.E. & Hahn, T.P. (2020) Gray-crowned Rosy-Finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Madge, S. (2020) Yellow-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Martin, K. (2001) Wildlife in alpine and sub-alpine habitats. In Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington. Johnson, D.H., O’Neil, T.A. (Manag. Dirs.). Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, pp. 285–310.Google Scholar
Martin, K. (2013) The ecological values of mountain environments and wildlife. In The Impact of Skiing on Mountain Environments. Rixen, C. & Rolando, A. (eds.). Bussum: Bentham Science Publishers, pp. 3–29.Google Scholar
Martin, K. & Wiebe, K.L. (2004) Coping mechanisms of alpine and arctic breeding birds: extreme weather and limitations to reproductive resilience. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 44, 177–185.Google Scholar
Martin, K., Stacey, P.B. & Braun, C.E. (2000) Recruitment, dispersal and demographic rescue in spatially-structured White-tailed Ptarmigan populations. Condor, 102, 503–516.Google Scholar
Martin, K., Wilson, S., MacDonald, E.C., et al. (2017) Effects of severe weather on reproduction for sympatric songbirds in an alpine environment: interactions of climate extremes influence nesting success. Auk, 134, 696–709.Google Scholar
Martin, K., Robb, L.A., Wilson, S. & Braun, C.E. (2020) White-tailed Ptarmigan (Lagopus leucura). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Rodewald, P.G. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Martin, K., Altamirano, T.A., de Zwaan, D.R., et al. (2021) Avian ecology and community structure across elevation gradients: the importance of high latitude temperate mountains for conserving biodiversity in the Americas. Global Ecology and Conservation, 30, e01799.Google Scholar
Martin, M., Camfield, A.F. & Martin, K. (2009) The demography of an alpine population of Savannah Sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis). Journal of Field Ornithology, 80, 253–264.Google Scholar
Martin, T.E. (1995) Avian life history evolution in relation to nest sites, nest predation, and food. Ecological Monographs, 65, 101–127.Google Scholar
Martin, T.E., Tobalske, B., Riordan, M.M., Case, S.B. & Dial, K.P. (2018) Age and performance at fledging are a cause and consequence of juvenile mortality between life stages. Science Advances, 4, eaar1998.Google Scholar
McKenzie, R.L., Johnston, P.V., Smale, D., Bodhaine, B.A. & Madronich, S. (2001) Altitude effects on UV spectral irradiance deduced from measurements at Lauder, New Zealand, and at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 106, 22845–22860.Google Scholar
Meyers, L.A. & Bull, J.J. (2002) Fighting change with change: adaptive variation in an uncertain world. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17, 551–557.Google Scholar
Minias, P. (2020) Ecology and evolution of blood oxygen-carrying capacity in birds. American Naturalist, 195, 788–801.Google Scholar
Mingozzi, T., Storino, P., Venuto, G., Massolo, A. & Tavecchia, G. (2021) Climate warming induced a stretch of the breeding season and an increase of second clutches in a passerine breeding at its altitudinal limits. Current Zoology, 68, 9–17.Google Scholar
Monaghan, P. (2008) Early growth conditions, phenotypic development and environmental change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363, 1635–1645.Google Scholar
Nagy, L. & Grabherr, G. (2009) The Biology of Alpine Habitats. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Norvell, J.R. & Creighton, P.D. (1990) Foraging of Horned Larks and Water Pipits in alpine communities. Journal of Field Ornithology, 61, 434–440.Google Scholar
O’Neill, J.P. & Parker, T.A. (1978) Responses of birds to a snowstorm in the Andes of southern Peru. Wilson Bulletin, 90, 446–449.Google Scholar
Pageau, C., Vale, M.M., de Menezes, M.A., et al. (2020) Evolution of altitudinal migration in passerines is linked to diet. Ecology and Evolution, 10, 3338–3345.Google Scholar
Pap, P.L., Osváth, G., Daubner, T., Nord, A. & Vincze, O. (2020) Down feather morphology reflects adaptation to habitat and thermal conditions across the avian phylogeny. Evolution, 74, 2365–2376.Google Scholar
Parr, N., Bearhop, S., Douglas, D.C. et al. (2017) High altitude flights by ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea during trans-Himalayan migrations. Journal of Avian Biology, 48, 1–6.Google Scholar
Parr, N., Wilkes, M. & Hawkes, L.A. (2019) Natural climbers: insights from avian physiology at high altitudes. High Altitude Medicine and Biology, 20, 427–437.Google Scholar
Pattinson, N.B., Thompson, M.L., Griego, M., et al. (2020) Heat dissipation behaviour of birds in seasonally hot arid‐zones: are there global patterns? Journal of Avian Biology, 51, e02350.Google Scholar
Peacock, A.J. (1998) Oxygen at high altitude. British Medical Journal, 317, 1063–1066.Google Scholar
Piersma, T. & Drent, J. (2003) Phenotypic flexibility and the evolution of organismal design. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18, 228–233.Google Scholar
Pollock, H.S., Brawn, J.D., Agin, T.J. & Cheviron, Z.A. (2019) Differences between temperate and tropical birds in seasonal acclimatization of thermoregulatory traits. Journal of Avian Biology, 50, e02067.Google Scholar
Potapov, R.L. (2004) Adaptations of birds to life in high mountains in Eurasia. Acta Zoologica Sinica, 50, 970–977.Google Scholar
Promislow, D.E.L. & Harvey, P.H. (1990) Living fast and dying young: a comparative analysis of life-history variation among mammals. Journal of Zoology, 220, 417–437.Google Scholar
Projecto-Garcia, J., Natarajan, C., Moriyama, H., et al. (2013) Repeated elevational transitions in hemoglobin function during the evolution of Andean hummingbirds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 20669–20674.Google Scholar
Qu, Y., Zhao, H., Han, N., et al. (2013) Ground tit genome reveals avian adaptation to living at high altitudes in the Tibetan plateau. Nature Communications, 4, 2071.Google Scholar
Qu, Y., Tian, S., Han, N., et al. (2015) Genetic responses to seasonal variation in altitudinal stress: whole-genome resequencing of great tit in eastern Himalayas. Scientific Reports, 5, 14256.Google Scholar
Resano-Mayor, J., Korner-Nievergelt, F., Vignali, S., et al. (2019) Snow cover phenology is the main driver of foraging habitat selection for a high-alpine passerine during breeding: implications for species persistence in the face of climate change. Biodiversity and Conservation, 28, 2669–2685.Google Scholar
Ricklefs, R.E. & Wikelski, M. (2002) The physiology/life history nexus. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17, 462–468.Google Scholar
Rising, J.D. & Jaramillo, A. (2020) Rufous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Rogalla, S., D’Alba, L., Verdoodt, A. & Shawkey, M.D. (2019) Hot wings: thermal impacts of wing coloration on surface temperature during bird flight. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 16, 20190032.Google Scholar
Rogalla, S., Patil, A., Dhinojwala, A., Shawkey, M.D. & D’Alba, L. (2021) Enhanced photothermal absorption in iridescent feathers. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 18, 20210252.Google Scholar
Rosvold, J. (2016) Perennial ice and snow‐covered land as important ecosystems for birds and mammals. Journal of Biogeography, 43, 3–12.Google Scholar
Sæther, B.E. & Bakke, Ø. (2000) Avian life history variation and contribution of demographic traits to the population growth rate. Ecology, 81, 642–653.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sander, M.M., Chamberlain, D., Mermillon, C., et al. (2021) Early breeding conditions followed by reduced breeding success despite timely arrival in an alpine migratory songbird. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 676506.Google Scholar
Sandercock, B.K., Martin, K. & Hannon, S.J. (2005) Life history variation in extreme environments: comparative demography of arctic and alpine ptarmigan. Ecology, 86, 2176–2186.Google Scholar
Schano, C., Niffenegger, C., Jonas, T. & Korner‐Nievergelt, F. (2021) Hatching phenology is lagging behind an advancing snowmelt pattern in a high‐alpine bird. Scientific Reports, 11, 22191.Google Scholar
Scholander, P.F., Hock, R., Walters, V. & Irving, L. (1950) Adaptation to cold in arctic and tropical mammals and birds in relation to body temperature, insulation, and basal metabolic rate. Biological Bulletin, 99, 259–271.Google Scholar
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1997) Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Scott, G.R. (2011) Elevated performance: the unique physiology of birds that fly at high altitudes. Journal of Experimental Biology, 214, 2455–2462.Google Scholar
Scridel, D., Brambilla, M., Martin, K., et al. (2018) A review and meta‐analysis of the effects of climate change on Holarctic mountain and upland bird populations. Ibis, 160, 489–515.Google Scholar
Scridel, D., Brambilla, M., de Zwaan, D.R., et al. (2021) A genus at risk: predicted current and future distribution of all three Lagopus species reveal sensitivity to climate change and efficacy of protected areas. Diversity and Distributions, 27, 1759–1744.Google Scholar
Segre, P.S., Dakin, R., Read, T.J.G., Straw, A.D. & Altshuler, D.L. (2016) Mechanical constraints on flight at high elevation decrease maneuvering performance of hummingbirds. Current Biology, 26, 3368–3374.Google Scholar
Senner, N.R., Stager, M., Verhoeven, M.A., et al. (2018) High-altitude shorebird migration in the absence of topographical barriers: avoiding high air temperatures and searching for profitable winds. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 285, 20180569.Google Scholar
Sevillano-Ríos, C.S., Rodewald, A.D. & Morales, L.V. (2020) Alpine birds of South America. In Encyclopedia of the World’s Biomes. Goldstein, M.I. & DellaSala, D.A. (eds.). Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 492–504.Google Scholar
Shankar, A., Schroeder, R.J., Wethington, S.M., Graham, C.H. & Powers, D.R. (2020) Hummingbird torpor in context: duration, more than temperature, is the key to nighttime energy savings. Journal of Avian Biology, 51, e02305.Google Scholar
Sjöberg, S., Malmiga, G., Nord, A., et al. (2021) Extreme altitudes during diurnal flights in a nocturnal songbird migrant. Science, 372, 646–648.Google Scholar
Snell-Rood, E.C. & Badyaev, A.V. (2008) Ecological gradient of sexual selection: elevation and song elaboration in finches. Oecologia, 157, 545–551.Google Scholar
Spence, A.R., LeWinter, H. & Tingley, M.W. (2022) Anna’s hummingbird (Calypte anna) physiological response to novel thermal and hypoxic conditions at high elevations. Journal of Experimental Biology, 225, jeb243294.Google Scholar
Stager, M., Swanson, D.L. & Cheviron, Z.A. (2015) Regulatory mechanisms of metabolic flexibility in the dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis). Journal of Experimental Biology, 218, 767–777.Google Scholar
Stettenheim, P.R. (2000) The integumentary morphology of modern birds—an overview. American Zooogist, 40, 461–477.Google Scholar
Strickland, D. & Ouellet, H.R. (2020) Canada Jay (Perisoreus canadensis). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Rodewald, P.G. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Storz, J.F., Quiroga-Carmona, M., Opazo, J.C., et al. (2020) Discovery of the world’s highest-dwelling mammal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, 18169–18171.Google Scholar
Stull, R.B. (2000) Meteorology for Scientists and Engineers. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Supriya, K., Price, T.D. & Moreau, C.S. (2020) Competition with insectivorous ants as a contributor to low songbird diversity at low elevations in the eastern Himalaya. Ecology and Evolution, 10, 4280–4290.Google Scholar
Swanson, D.L. & GarlandJr, T. (2009) The evolution of high summit metabolism and cold tolerance in birds and its impact on present‐day distributions. Evolution, 63, 184–194.Google Scholar
Tape, K.D., Lord, R., Marshall, H.-P. & Ruess, R.W. (2010) Snow-mediated ptarmigan browsing and shrub expansion in arctic Alaska. Ecoscience, 17, 186–193.Google Scholar
Tomback, D.F. (2020) Clark’s Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
Tsai, P.-Y., Ko, C.-J., Chia, S. Y., Lu, Y.-J. & Tuanmu, M.-N. (2021) New insights into the patterns and drivers of avian altitudinal migration from a growing crowdsourcing data source. Ecography, 44, 75–86.Google Scholar
Visinoni, L., Pernollet, C.A., Desmet, J.F., et al. (2015) Microclimate and microhabitat selection by the Alpine Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica) during summer. Journal of Ornithology, 156, 407–417.Google Scholar
Wang, Q., Wang, M. & Fan, X. (2018) Seasonal patterns of warming amplification of high-elevation stations across the globe. International Journal of Climatology, 38, 3466–3473.Google Scholar
Wiebe, K.L. & Martin, K. (1997) Effects of predation, body condition and temperature on incubation rhythms of ptarmigan. Wildlife Biology, 3, 219–227.Google Scholar
Wille, M., Lisovski, S., Risely, A., et al. (2019) Serologic evidence of exposure to highly pathogenic avian influenza H5 viruses in migratory shorebirds, Australia. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 25, 1903.Google Scholar
Williams, H.J., Shepard, E.L.C., Holton, M.D., et al. (2020) Physical limits of flight performance in the heaviest soaring bird. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, 17884–17890.Google Scholar
Williams, T.D. (2020) What Is a Bird?: An Exploration of Anatomy, Physiology, Behavior, and Ecology. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Williamson, J.L. & Witt, C.C. (2021) Elevational niche-shift migration: why the degree of elevational change matters for the ecology, evolution, and physiology of migratory birds. Auk, 138, ukaa087.Google Scholar
Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2005) High elevation habitat associations of birds during fall migration. Ecoscience, 12, 561–568.Google Scholar
Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2011) Life-history and demographic variation in an alpine specialist at the latitudinal extremes of the range. Population Ecology, 53, 459–471.Google Scholar
Wingfield, J.C. & Kenagy, G.J. (1991) Natural regulation of reproductive cycles. In Vertebrate Endocrinology: Fundamentals and Biomedical Implications. Schreibman, M. & Jones, R.E. (eds.). New York: Academic Press, pp. 181–241.Google Scholar
Wolf, L.L. & Hainsworth, F.R. (1972) Environmental influence on regulated body temperature in torpid hummingbirds. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A, 41, 167–173.Google Scholar
Wolf, B.O. & Walsberg, G.E. (1996) Thermal effects of radiation and wind on a small bird and implications for microsite selection. Ecology, 77, 2228–2236.Google Scholar
Wolf, B.O. & Walsberg, G.E. (2000) The role of the plumage in heat transfer processes of birds. American Zoologist, 40, 575–584.Google Scholar
Yeh, P.J. & Price, T.D. (2004) Adaptive phenotypic plasticity and the successful colonization of a novel environment. American Naturalist, 164, 531–542.Google Scholar
York, J.M., Chua, B.A., Ivy, C.M., et al. (2017) Respiratory mechanics of eleven avian species resident at high and low altitude. Journal of Experimental Biology, 220, 1079–1089.Google Scholar
Youngflesh, C., Saracco, J.F., Siegel, R.B. & Tingley, M.W. (2022) Abiotic conditions shape spatial and temporal morphological variation in North American birds. Nature Ecology and Evolution, 6, 1860–1870.Google Scholar
Zamora-Vilchis, I., Williams, S.E. & Johnson, C.N. (2012) Environmental temperature affects prevalence of blood parasites of birds on an elevation gradient: implications for disease in a warming climate. PLoS ONE, 7, e39208.Google Scholar
Zwickel, F.C. & Bendell, J.F. (2020) Blue Grouse (Dendragapus obscurus). In Birds of the World. Version 1.0. Billerman, S.M. (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology.Google Scholar
- 1
- Cited by