Prevention of antisocial behaviour in females

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489259.010

9 - Prevention of antisocial behaviour in females

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 22 September 2009

Deborah Gorman-Smith

Edited by

David P. Farrington and

Jeremy W. Coid

Show author details

Deborah Gorman-Smith: Affiliation:
Institute for Juvenile Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA
David P. Farrington: Affiliation:
Institute of Criminology, Cambridge
Jeremy W. Coid: Affiliation:
St Bartholomew's and Royal London School of Medicine

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Sound preventive interventions to target antisocial behaviour among girls depends on reliable empirical data to address three primary questions. First, what are the rates and patterns of involvement in antisocial behaviour among females? Second, what are the predictors and correlates of involvement in antisocial behaviour among females? Third, is there any evidence of programme impact of interventions for females and is there any evidence of differential impact due to gender? In this chapter, I review the available empirical literature to summarise the state of our knowledge to address these questions to guide prevention efforts.

However, it is clear that the ability of the review to be informative for guiding prevention is constrained because there are limited data available that focus specifically on girls. Also, there are several issues that limit the ability to interpret much of the data that do exist. Therefore, the first part of the chapter focuses on three major issues that have constrained the state of knowledge regarding antisocial behaviour and girls: (1) lack of inclusion of girls in studies of antisocial behaviour, (2) differences in the behaviours that might define antisocial behaviour among girls and the long-term outcomes associated with antisocial behaviour in childhood for women and (3) the inclusion of gender in theory development. The second part of the chapter proposes an approach that can overcome these limitations and through which the development of antisocial behaviour for both males and females might be understood.

Type: Chapter
Information: Early Prevention of Adult Antisocial Behaviour , pp. 292 - 317

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489259.010 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adler, F. (1975) Sisters in Crime. New York: McGraw-Hill

Anglin, D. and Hser, Y. (1987) Addicted women and crime. Criminology, 25, 359–97CrossRef Google Scholar

Avery, L. and Gorman-Smith, D. (1998) Child Abuse, Neglect, and Violence. Unpublished manuscript

Bardone, A. M., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Stanton, W. R. and Silva, P. A. (1996) Adult mental health and social outcomes of adolescent girls with depression and conduct disorder. Developmental Psychopathology, 8, 811–29CrossRef Google Scholar

Bardone, A. M., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Stanton, W. R. and Silva, P. A. (1996) Adult physical health outcomes of adolescent girls with conduct disorder, depression, and anxiety. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, (6), 594–601CrossRef Google Scholar

Bjorkqvist, K. and Niemela, P. (1992) New trends in the study of female aggression. In K. Bjorkqvist and P. Niemala. (eds.), Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression. (pp. 1–16). San Diego, CA: Academic Press

Block, J. (1983) Differential premises arising from differential socialization of the sexes: Some conjectures. Child Development, 54, 1335–54CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Boyce, W. T., Frank, E., Jensen, P. S., Kessler, R. C., Nelson, C. A. and Steinberg, L. (1998) Social context in developmental psychopathology: Recommendations for future research from the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Psychopathology and Development. Development and Psychopathology, 10, (2), 143–64CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986) Ecology of the family as a context for human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–31CrossRef Google Scholar

Brook, J. S., Nomura, C. and Cohen, P. (1989) A network of influences on adolescent drug involvement: Neighborhood, school, peer, and family. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 115, (1), 125–45Google Scholar PubMed

Browne, A. and Finklehor, D. (1986) Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of Research. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 66–77CrossRef Google Scholar

Cairns, R. B. and Cairns, B. D. (1986) The developmental-interactional view of social behavior: Four issues of adolescent aggression. In D. Olweus J. Block, and M. Radke-Yarrow (eds.), Development of Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior (pp. 315–42). New York: Academic Press

Cairns, R. B. and Cairns, B. D. (1994) Lifelines and Risk: Pathways of Youth in Our Time. Cambridge University Press

Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Ferguson, L. L. and Gariepy, J. L. (1989) Growth and aggression: I. Childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 25, 320–30CrossRef Google Scholar

Cairns, R. B., Elder, G. H. and Costello, E. J. (1996) Developmental Science. New York: Cambridge University Press

Calhoun, G., Jurgens, J. and Chen, F. (1993) The neophyte female delinquent: A review of the literature. Adolescence, 28, (110), 461–71Google Scholar PubMed

Canter, R. J. (1982) Family correlates of male and female delinquency. Criminology, 20, 149–67CrossRef Google Scholar

Capaldi, D. and Gorman-Smith, D. (in press) Physical and psychological aggression in male/female adolescent and young adult couples. In P. Florsheim, (ed.) Adolescent Romance and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research and Practical Implications. Los Angeles: LEA associates

Caspi, A. and Moffitt, T. E. (1991) Individual differences are accentuated during periods of social change: The sample case of girls at puberty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 157–68CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Caspi, A., Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E. and Silva, P. A. (1993) Unraveling girls' delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to adolescent misbehavior. Developmental Psychology, 29, 19–30CrossRef Google Scholar

Cernkovich, S. A. and Giordano, P. C. (1979) A comparative analysis of male and female delinquency. Sociological Quarterly, 20, 131–45CrossRef Google Scholar

Chesney-Lind, M. (1973) Judicial enforcement of the female sex role. Issues in Criminology, 3, 51–71Google Scholar

Chesney-Lind, M. (1989) Girls' crime and woman's place: Toward a feminist model of female delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 35, (1), 5–29CrossRef Google Scholar

Chesney-Lind, M. (1997) The Female Offender: Girls, Women and Crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications

Chesney-Lind, M. and Brown, M. (1998) Girls and violence. In Flannery, D. J. and Huff. C. R. (eds.). Youth Violence: Prevention, Intervention, and Social Policy. (pp. 171–99). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press

Chesney-Lind, M. and Rodriquez, N. (1983) Women under lock and key. Prison Journal, 63, 47–65CrossRef Google Scholar

Chesney-Lind, M. and Shelden, R. G. (1992) Girls, Delinquency, and Juvenile Justice. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole

Cicchetti, D. and Aber, J. L. (1998) Contextualism and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 489–93CrossRef Google Scholar

Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C. N., Hartmark, C., Johnson, J.Rojas, M., Brook, J. and Streuning, E. L. (1993) An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence- I. age- and gender-specific prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 851–67CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Crick, N. R. and Grotpeter, J. K. (1995) Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, (3), 710–22CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Crick, N. R., Bigbee, M. and Howes, C. (1996) Gender differences in children's normative beliefs about aggression: How do I hurt thee? Let me count the ways. Child Development, 67, 1003–14CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Crick, N. R., Wellman, N. E., Casas, J. F., O'Brien, K. M., Nelson, D. A., Grotpeter, J. K. and Markon, K. (in press). Childhood aggression and gender: A new look at an old problem. In D. Berstein (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, vol. 45

Daly, K. (1994) Gender, Crime, and Punishment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press

DeJong, A. R., Hervada, A. R. and Emmett, G. A. (1983) Epidemiologic variations in childhood sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 155–62CrossRef Google Scholar

Doerner, W. G. (1987) Child maltreatment seriousness and juvenile delinquency. Youth and Society, 19, (2), 197–224CrossRef Google Scholar

Elliott, D. S. (1994) Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course, and termination-the American society of criminology 1993 presidential address. Criminology, 32, 1–21CrossRef Google Scholar

Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D. A. and Ageton, S. S. (1985) Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage

Farrell, A. D. and Meyer, A. L. (1997) The effectiveness of a school-based curiculum for reducing violence among urban sixth-grade students. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 979–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Farrington, D. P. and Welsh, B. C. (1999) Delinquency prevention using family-based interventions. Children and Society, 13, 287–3033.0.CO;2-Z>CrossRef Google Scholar

Farrington, D. P. and West, D. J. (1995) Effects of marriage, separation, and children on offending by adult males. In Z. Blau Smith and J. Hagan (eds.), Current Perspectives on Aging and the Life Cycle. vol. 4. (pp. 249–81). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press

Figueira-McDonough, J. (1985) Are girls different? Gender discrepancies between delinquent behavior and control. Child Welfare, 64, 273–89Google Scholar PubMed

Finklehor, D. and Baron, L. (1986) Risk factors for child sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, 43–71CrossRef Google Scholar

Gilfus, M. (1992) From victims to survivors to offenders: Women's routes of entry and immersion into street crime. Women Crim. Justice, 4: 63–89CrossRef Google Scholar

Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A. and Pugh, M. D. (1986) Friendships and delinquency. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1170–202CrossRef Google Scholar

Glueck, S. and Glueck, E. (1950) Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency. New York: Commonwealth Fund

Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H. and Henry, D. (1999) The relation of community and family to risk among urban poor adolescents. In P. Cohen and L. N. Robins, C. Slomkowski (eds.), Historical and Geographical Influences on Psychopathology (pp. 349–67). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H. and Henry, D. (2000) A developmental-ecological model of the relation of family functioning to patterns of delinquency. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 16, 169–98CrossRef Google Scholar

Gorman-Smith, D., Tolan, P. H., Zelli, A. and Huesmann, L. R. (1996) The relation of family functioning to violence among inner-city minority youth. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 115–29CrossRef Google Scholar

Hagan, J., Gillis, A. and Simpson, J. (1993) The power of control in sociological theories of delinquency. In F. Adler and W. Laufer (eds.), Advances in Criminological Theory. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction

Havighurst, R. J., Bowman, P. H., Liddle, G. P., Matthews, C. V. and Pierce, J. V. (1962) Growing Up in River City. New York: John Wiley

Hawkins, J. D., Cleve, E. and Catalano, R. F. (1991) Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208–17CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Henggeler, S. W., Edwards, J. and Borduin, C. M. (1987) The family relations of female juvenile delinquents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 199–209CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hirschi, T. (1969) Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press

Howing, P., Wodarski, J. S., Kurtz, P. D., Gaudin, J. M. Jr. and Herbst, E. N. (1990) Child abuse and delinquency: The empirical and theoretical links. Social Work, 35, 244–9Google Scholar PubMed

Huizinga, D. and Elliott, D. (1986) Reassessing the reliability and validity of self-report delinquency measures. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 2, 293–327Google Scholar

Jensen, G. J. and Eve, R. (1976) Sex differences in delinquency: an examination of popular sociological explanations. Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 13 (4), 427–48CrossRef Google Scholar

Kellam, S. G., Mayer, L. S., Rebok, G. W. and Hawkins, W. E. (1998) Effects of improving achievement on aggressive behavior and of improving aggressive behavior on achievement through two preventive interactions: An investigation of causal paths. In B. Dohrenwend (ed.), Adversity, Stress, and Psychopathology (pp. 486–505). New York: Oxford University Press

Kellam, S. G., Simon, M. and Ensminger, M. (1983) Antecedents in first grade of teenage substance abuse and psychological well being. In D. Ricks and B. Dohrenwend (eds.), Origins of psychopathology. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press

Kelley, B. T., Thornberry, T. P. and Smith, C. A. (August, 1997) In the wake of Childhood Maltreatment. Washington, DC: Juvenile Justice Bulletin

Kruttschnitt, C. (1993) Violence by and against women: A cooperative and cross-national analysis. Violence and Victims, vol. 8(3), 253–70Google Scholar

Kruttschnitt, C. (1994) Gender and interpersonal violence. In J. Roth and A. Reiss (eds.), Understanding and Preventing Violence: vol. 3: Social Influences (pp. 293–376). Washington, DC: National Academy Press

Laub, J. H. and McDermott, M. J. (1985) An analysis of serious crime by young black women. Criminology, 23, 81–98CrossRef Google Scholar

Lefkowitz, M. M., Eron, L. D., Walder, L. O. and Huesmann, L. R. (1977) Growing Up to Be Violent. New York: Pergamon

Lewis, D. O., Yeager, C. A., Cobham-Portorreal, C. S., Klein, N., Showalter, C. and Anthony, A. (1991) A follow-up of female delinquents: Maternal contributions to the perpetuation of deviance. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 197–201CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lipsey, M. (1992) Juvenile delinquency treatment: A meta-analytic inquiry in the variability of effects. In T. A. Cook, H. Cooper, D. S. Corday, H. Hartmann, L. V. Hedges, R. J. Light, T. A. Louis and F. Mosleller (eds.) Meta-analysis for Explanation: A Casebook (pp. 83–126). New York: Russell Sage

Loeber, R. and Farrington, D. P. (1997) Strategies and yields of longitudinal studies on antisocial behavior. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling and J. D. Maser (eds.), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior. (pp. 125–39). New York: Wiley

Loeber, R. and Farrington, D. P. (1998) Conclusions and the way forward. In Loeber, R. and Farrington, D. P. (eds), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions (pp. 405–27). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Loeber, R. and Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1986) Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In M. Tonry and Morris, N. (eds), Crime and Justice vol. 7 (pp. 29–149). University of Chicago Press

Loper, A. B. and Cornell, D. G. (1996) Homicide by girls. Journal of Family and Child Studies, 5, 321–33CrossRef Google Scholar

McCord, J. (1982) A longitudinal view of the relationship between paternal absence and crime. In J. Gunn and D. P. Farrington (eds.), Abnormal Offenders, Delinquency, and the Criminal Justice System (pp. 113–28). Chichester: Wiley

McDonald, C. D. and O'Laughlin, E. M. (1997) Relational Aggression and Risk Behaviors in Middle School Students. Poster presented at the bi-annual meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development. Washington, DC

Morash, M. and Chesney-Lind, M. (1991) A reformulation and partial test of the power control theory of delinquency. Justice Quarterly, 8, 347–76CrossRef Google Scholar

Morey, L. C. (1991) The Personality Assessment Inventory: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources

Pajer, K. A. (1998) What happens to “bad” girls? A review of the adult outcomes of antisocial adolescent girls. American Journal of Psychiatry, 115, (7), 862–70CrossRef Google Scholar

Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B. and Dishion, T. J. (1992) Antisocial Boys: A Social Interactional Approach (vol. 4). Eugene, OR: Castalia

Pettiway, L. E. (1997) Workin' It: Women Living through Drugs and Crime. Philadelphia: Temple University Press

Phelps, R. J. et al. (1982) Wisconsin Female Juvenile Offender Study Project Summary Report. Wisconsin: Youth Policy and Law Center, Wisconsin Council on Juvenile Justice

Poe-Yamagata, E. and Butts, J. A. (1996) Female Offenders in the Juvenile Justice System: Statistics Summary. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice

Richters, J. E. and Cicchetti, D. (1993) Mark Twain meets DSM-Ⅲ-R: Conduct disorder, development, and the concept of harmful dysfunction. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 5–29CrossRef Google Scholar

Robins, L. N. (1966) Deviant Children Grown Up: A Sociological and Psychiatric Study of Sociopathic Personality. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins

Robins, L. N. (1986) The consequences of conduct disorder in girls. In Olweus, D., Block, J. and Radke-Yarrow, M. (eds.) Development of Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior: Research, Theories, and Issues (pp. 385–409). New York: Academic Press

Robins, L. N. and Price, R. K. (1991) Adult disorders predicted by childhood conduct problems: Results from the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Project. Psychiatry, 54, 116–32CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sampson, R. J. and Laub, J. H. (1994) Urban poverty and the family context of delinquency: A new look at structure and process in a classic study. Child Development, 65, (2), 523–39CrossRef Google Scholar

Scudder, R. G., Blount, W. R., Heide, K. M. and Silverman, I. J. (1993) Important links between child abuse, neglect, and delinquency. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 37, (4), 315–23CrossRef Google Scholar

Shaw, C. and McKay, H. (1942) Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. University of Chicago Press

Simon, R. (1975) The Contemporary Woman and Crime. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health

Smith, C. and Thornberry, T. (1995) The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency. Criminology, 33, (4), 451–79CrossRef Google Scholar

Snell, T. L. and Morton, D. C. (1994) Women in Prison. Special report. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Deptartment of Justice

Snyder, H., Finnegan, T. A., Nimick, E. H., Sickmund, M. H., Sullivan, D. P. and Tierney, N. J. (1989) Juvenile Court Statistics 1985. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice

Snyder, H. N. and Sickmund, M. (1995) Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A Focus on Violence. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice

Sommers, I. and Baskin, D. (1992) Sex, race, age, and violent offending. Violence and Victims, 7, 191–201Google Scholar PubMed

Spaccarelli, S. (1994) Stress, appraisal, and coping in child sexual abuse: a theoretical and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 116, (2), 340–62CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Stattin, H. and Magnusson, D. (1990) Pubertal Maturation in Female Development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

Steffensmeier, D. (1983) Sex-segregation in the underworld: Building a sociological explanation of sex differences in crime. Social Forces, 61, 1010–32CrossRef Google Scholar

Steffensmeier, D. (1993) National trends in female arrests, 1960–1990: assessment and recommendations for research. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9, 413–41CrossRef Google Scholar

Steffensmeier, D. and Allan, E. (1995) Gender, age, and crime. In J. Sheley (ed.) Handbook of Contemporary Criminology. New York: Wadsworth

Steffensmeier, D. and Allan, E. (1995) Gender and crime: toward a gendered theory of female offending. Annual Review of Sociology, 22, 459–87CrossRef Google Scholar

Steffensmeier, D., Allan, E. and Streifel, C. (1989) Development and female crime: a cross-national test of alternative explanation. Social Forces, 68, 262–83CrossRef Google Scholar

Synder, H. N. and Finnegan, T. A. (1987) Delinquency in the United States. Washington, DC: Department of Justice

Szapocznik, J. and Coatsworth, J. D. (1999) An ecodevelopemental framework for organizing the influences on drug abuse: a developmental model of risk and protection. In M. Glantz and C. R. Hartel (eds.) Drug Abuse: Origins and Interventions. Washington DC: American Psychological Association

Szapocznik, J., Gorman-Smith, D., Coatsworth, J. D. and Tolan, P. (1998) Families, Ecodevelopment, and Drug Abuse Prevention. Unpublished manuscript

Triplett, R. and Myers, L. (1995) Evaluating contextual patterns of delinquency: Gender based differences. Justice Quarterly, 12, 59–79CrossRef Google Scholar

Tolan, P. H. and Guerra, N. (1994) What Works in Reducing Adolescent Violence: An Empirical Review of the Field. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado

Tolan, P. G., Guerra, N. and Kendall, P. C. (1995) An developmental-ecological perspective on anti-social behavior in children and adolescents: Toward a unified risk and intervention framework. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, (4), 579–84CrossRef Google Scholar

Warr, M. (1998) Life course transitions and desistance from crime. Criminology, 36(2), 183–216CrossRef Google Scholar

Wassermann, G. A. and Miller, L. (1998) The prevention of serious and violent juvenile offending. In R. Loeber and D. Farrington (eds.), Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions. (pp. 197–247). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Wellman, N. E. and Crick, N. R. (1998) Relational and Physical Aggression and Social-Psychological Adjustment in a College Sample. Unpublished manuscript, University of Minnesota

Werner, E. (1992) The children of Kauai: resiliency and recovery in adolescence and adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13 (4), 262–68CrossRef

Werner, E. E. and Smith, R. S. (1992) Overcoming the Odds: High Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press

Widom, C. S. (1989) Child abuse, neglect and violent criminal behavior. Criminology, 27, 251–71CrossRef Google Scholar

Widom, C. S. and White, H. R. (1997) Problem behaviours in abused and neglected children grown up: Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance abuse, crime and violence. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 7, (4), 287–310CrossRef Google Scholar

Wikstrom, P. H. and Loeber, R. (2000) Do disadvantaged neighborhoods cause well-adusted children to become adolescent delinquents? A study of male juvenile serious offending, individual risk and protective factors, and neighborhood context. Criminology, 38, (4), 1109–42CrossRef Google Scholar

Zingraff, M. T., Leiter, J., Myers, K. A. and Johnson, M. C. (1993) Child maltreatment and youthful problem behavior. Criminology, 31, (2), 173–202CrossRef Google Scholar

Zoccolillo, M. (1993) Gender and the development of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 65–78CrossRef Google Scholar

Zoccolillo, M., Pickles, A., Quinton, D. and Rutter, M. (1992) The outcome of childhood conduct disorder: Implications for defining adult personality disorder and conduct disorder. Psychol. Med., 22, 971–86CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zoccolillo, M. and Rogers, K. (1991) Characteristics and outcome of hospitalized adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 973–81CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed