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10 - Collective Action under the Shadow of Contractual Governance: The Case of a Participatory Approach to Upgrade Cairo’s ‘Garbage Cities’

from Part I - Mitigating Institutional Voids by Design

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 November 2019

By
Nuno Gil  and
Samuel C. MacAulay
Edited by
Nuno Gil ,
Anne Stafford  and
Innocent Musonda
Nuno Gil
Affiliation:
University of Manchester
Anne Stafford
Affiliation:
University of Manchester
Innocent Musonda
Affiliation:
University of Johannesburg
Get access

Summary

The upgrading of informal urban areas is a pressing challenge for meeting the UN’s goal to make cities a pathway to sustainable development. Complicating co-ordinated collective action is the diffusion of decision-making authority and control over critical resources in a context where there is a shortfall of institutions. Tackling this grand challenge thus requires designing inter-organisational contexts capable of navigating many institutional voids, including ill-defined property rights, weak regulation and inefficient markets. In this chapter, we draw on a case study of a development project that granted decision rights to the poor to upgrade Cairo’s ‘garbage cities’ to further our understanding of this organisational challenge. Our aim is to illuminate a form of organising that is neglected in management scholarship. Its main attribute is the way by which contractual governance is supplemented with a consensus-oriented collective-action structure. Our main contribution is to theorise a trade-off central to this form of organising: collective action, under the shadow of contractual governance, economises on the high transaction costs that would otherwise be incurred to resolve ill-defined property rights. However, enfranchising the poor brings into the organisational boundaries the costs of collective action and risk of a tragedy of the commons.

Type
Chapter
Information
Duality by Design
The Global Race to Build Africa's Infrastructure
 , pp. 284 - 312
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

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References

References

Aghion, P. and Tirole, J. (1997). Formal and real authority in organisations. The Journal of Political Economy, 105(1); 1–29.Google Scholar
Armanios, D. E., Eesley, C. E., Li, J. and Eisenhardt, K .M. (2017). How entrepreneurs leverage institutional intermediaries in emerging economies to acquire public resources. Strategic Management Journal, 38: 1373–1390.Google Scholar
Arusha. (1990). African charter on popular participation in development and transformation. International Conference on Popular Participation in the Recovery and Development Process in Africa. 12–16 February, Arusha, the United Republic of Tanzania.Google Scholar
AUC. (2014). Egypt’s strategy for dealing with slums. New Cairo: Center for Sustainable Development, the American University in Cairo.Google Scholar
Baiocchi, G. (2003). Participation, activism and politics: The Porto Alegre Experiment. In Fung, A., and Wright, E. O. (Eds.), Deepening democracy: Institutional innovations in empowered participatory governance. London and New York: Verso Books.Google Scholar
Baldwin, C. Y. (2007). Where do transactions come from? Modularity, transactions, and the boundaries of firms. Industrial and Corporate Change, 17:155–195.Google Scholar
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Colquitt, J. A. and George, G. (2011). Publishing in AMJ: Topic choice. Academy of Management Journal, 54: 432–435.Google Scholar
Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (2001). Participation: The new tyranny? London and New York: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Dutt, N., Hawn, O., Vidal, E., Chatterji, A., McGahan, A. and Mitchell, W. (2016). How open system intermediaries fill voids in market-based institutions: The case of business incubators in emerging markets. Academy of Management Journal, 59(3): 818–840.Google Scholar
EcoConServ. (2010). Consultancy for upstream poverty and social impact analysis for Egypt’s solid waste management reform: Final report, December. Cairo, Egypt: The Ministry of Local Development, United Nations Development Programme, and the World Bank.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. and Graebner, M. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy Management Journal , 50(1): 25–32.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. M., Graebner, M. E. and Sonenshein, S. (2016). Grand challenges and inductive methods: Rigor without rigor mortis. Academy of Management Journal, 59 (4): 1113–23.Google Scholar
Fahmi, W. S. and Sutton, K. (2006). Cairo’s Zabbaleen garbage recyclers: Multi-nationals’ takeover and state relocation plans. Habitat International , 30: 812–815.Google Scholar
Fahmi, W. S. and Sutton, K. (2010). Cairo’s contested garbage: Sustainable solid waste management and the Zabbaleen’s right to the city. Sustainability, 2: 1765–83.Google Scholar
Ferraro, F., Etzion, D. and Gehman, J. (2015). Tackling grand challenges pragmatically: Robust action revisited. Organisation Studies, 36: 363–390.Google Scholar
Fjeldstad, Ø. D., Snow, C. C., Miles, R. E. and Lettl, C. (2012). The architecture of collaboration. Strategic Management Journal, 33(6): 734–750.Google Scholar
Gambardella, A., Panico, C. and Valentini, G. (2015). Strategic incentives to human capital. Strategic Management Journal, 36(1): 37–52.Google Scholar
George, G., Corbishley, C., Khayesi, J. N. O., Haas, M. R. and Tihanyi, L. (2016). Bringing Africa in: Promising directions for management research. Academy of Management Journal, 59(2): 377–393.Google Scholar
George, G., McGahan, A. M. and Prabhu, J. (2012). Innovation for inclusive growth: Towards a theoretical framework and a research agenda. Journal of Management Studies, 49: 661–683.Google Scholar
Gil, N., and Baldwin, C. (2013, September). Creating a design commons: Lessons from teachers’ participation in school design. Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 14–025.Google Scholar
Gil, N., Biesek, G. and Freeman, J. (2015). Inter-organisational development of flexible capital designs: The case of future-proofing infrastructure. IEEE Transactions in Engineering Management, 62(3): 335–350Google Scholar
Gil, N. and Pinto, J. (2018). Polycentric organising and performance: A contingency model and evidence from megaproject planning in the UK. Research Policy, 47 (4): 717–734.Google Scholar
Grodal, S. and O’Mahony, S. (2017). How does a grand challenge become displaced? Explaining the duality of field mobilisation. Academy of Management Journal, 60 (5): 1801–1827.Google Scholar
Gulati, R. and Puranam, P. (2009). Renewal through reorganization: The value of inconsistencies between formal and informal organization. Organization Science, 20(2): 422–440.Google Scholar
Gulati, R., Puranam, P. and Tushman, M. (2012). Meta-organisation design: Rethinking design in inter-organisational and community contexts. Strategic Management Journal, 33 (6): 571–86.Google Scholar
Harders, C. (2003). The informal social pact: The state and the urban poor in Cairo. In Kienle, E. (Ed.), Politics from above, politics from below: The Middle East in the age of economic reform. London: Saqi.Google Scholar
Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, New Series, 162 (3859):1243–1248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hegazy, I. R. (2016). Informal settlement upgrading policies in Egypt: Towards improvement in the upgrading process. Journal of Urbanism, 9(3): 254–275.Google Scholar
Iskander, L. (2000). Urban governance: Informal sector and municipal solid waste in Cairo. ‘Voices for Change – Partners for Prosperity’ for the MENA region. World Bank Conference.15th March, Washington.Google Scholar
Khalifa, M. A. (2015). Evolution of informal settlements upgrading policies in Egypt: From negligence to participatory development. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 6: 1151–1159.Google Scholar
Khanna, T. and Palepu, K. G. (1997). Why focused strategies may be wrong for emerging markets. Harvard Business Review, 75(4): 41–51.Google Scholar
Kumar, S. and Corbridge, S. (2002). Programmed to fail? Development projects and the politics of participation. Journal of Development Studies, 39(2): 73–103.Google Scholar
Libecap, G. D. (1989a). Contracting for property rights: Political economy of institutions and decisions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Libecap, G. D. (1989b). Distributional issues in contracting for property rights. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 145(1): 6–24.Google Scholar
Macneil, R. (1978) Contracts: Adjustments of long-term economic relations under classical, neoclassical, and relational contract law. Northwestern University Law Review, 72: 854–906.Google Scholar
Mair, J., Marti, I. and Ventresca, M. J. (2012). Building inclusive markets in rural Bangladesh: how intermediaries work institutional voids. Academy of Management Journal, 55(4): 819–850.Google Scholar
Majchrzak, A., Jarvenpaa, S. L., Hollingshead, A. B. (2007). Coordinating expertise among emergent groups responding to disasters. Organisation Science , 18:147–61Google Scholar
McDermott, G. A., Corredoira, R. A. and Kruse, G. (2009). Public–private institutions as catalysts of upgrading in emerging market societies. Academy of Management Journal , 52(6): 1270–1296.Google Scholar
NSWMP (2011). National solid waste management programme Egypt – Main report. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
NSWMP. (2014). National strategic directives for solid waste management in Egypt. National Solid Waste Management Programme, November. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
O’Mahony, S. and Bechky, B. A. (2008). Boundary organisations: Enabling collaboration among unexpected allies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53(3): 422–459.Google Scholar
Olsen, A. Ø., Sofka, W. and Grimpe, C. (2016). Coordinated exploration for grand challenges: The role of advocacy groups in search consortia. Academy of Management Journal, 59(6): 2232–55.Google Scholar
Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Osmani, S. (2008). Participatory governance: An overview of issues and evidence. Participatory governance and the Millennium Development Goals. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2005). Understanding institutional diversity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2010). A long polycentric journey. Annual Review of Political Science, 13, 1–23.Google Scholar
Perkmann, M. and Schildt, H. (2015). Open-data partnerships between firms and universities: The role of boundary organisations. Research Policy, 44(5): 1133–1143.Google Scholar
Platteau, J. P. and Abraham, A. (2002). Participatory development in the presence of endogenous community imperfections. Journal of Development Studies, 39(2): 104–136.Google Scholar
Puranam, P., Alexy, O., and Reitzig, M. (2014). What’s ‘new’ about new forms of organizing? Academy of Management Review, 39(2): 162–180.Google Scholar
Reetz, D. K. and MacAulay, S. C. (2017). Finding novelty through co-evolutionary search. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1: 12807.Google Scholar
Rigon, A. (2014). Building local governance: Participation and elite capture in slum-upgrading in Kenya. Development and Change, 45: 257–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivkin, J. W. and Siggelkow, N. 2003. Balancing search and stability: Interdependencies among elements of organisational design. Management Science, 49(3): 290–311.Google Scholar
Scheinberg, A., Simpson, M. H., Gupt, Y. et al. (2010). Economic aspects of the informal sector in solid waste. Eschborn, Germany: GTZ.Google Scholar
Schlager, E. and Ostrom, E. (1992). Property-rights regimes and natural resources: A conceptual analysis. Land Economics, 68(3): 249–62.Google Scholar
Siggelkow, N. (2007). Persuasion with case studies. Academy of Management Journal , 50(1): 20–24.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1962). The architecture of complexity. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 156: 467–482.Google Scholar
Sims, D.(2010). Understanding Cairo: The logic of a city out of control. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.Google Scholar
Tan-Mullins, M., Mohan, G. and Power, M. (2010). Redefining ‘aid’ in the China–Africa context. Development and Change, 41: 857–881.Google Scholar
UN. (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision, online edition. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat. (2003). The challenge of slums: Global report on human settlements. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN Habitat. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat. (2008). State of the world’s cities 2008/2009: Harmonious cities.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat. (2015). Habitat III issue papers. 22 – Informal settlements. United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, New York, 31 May.Google Scholar
Walker, M. (2013). Why is waste a dirty word? In Madhavan, G. et al. (Eds.), Practicing sustainability. New York: Springer Science Business Media.Google Scholar
Wilson, D. C., Velis, C. and Cheeseman, C. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. Habitat International, 30: 797–808.Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. (1979). Transaction-cost economics: The governance of contractual relations. Journal of Law and Economics, 22(2): 233–261.Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. (1985). The economic institutions of capitalism. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. (1991). Comparative economic organisation: The analysis of discrete structural alternatives. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36 (June): 269–296.Google Scholar
World Bank. (2004). World development report 2004: Making services work for poor people. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Xin, K. R. and Pearce, J. L. (1996). Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support. Academy of Management Journal, 39(6): 1641–1658.Google Scholar
Aghion, P. and Tirole, J. (1997). Formal and real authority in organisations. The Journal of Political Economy, 105(1); 1–29.Google Scholar
Armanios, D. E., Eesley, C. E., Li, J. and Eisenhardt, K .M. (2017). How entrepreneurs leverage institutional intermediaries in emerging economies to acquire public resources. Strategic Management Journal, 38: 1373–1390.Google Scholar
Arusha. (1990). African charter on popular participation in development and transformation. International Conference on Popular Participation in the Recovery and Development Process in Africa. 12–16 February, Arusha, the United Republic of Tanzania.Google Scholar
AUC. (2014). Egypt’s strategy for dealing with slums. New Cairo: Center for Sustainable Development, the American University in Cairo.Google Scholar
Baiocchi, G. (2003). Participation, activism and politics: The Porto Alegre Experiment. In Fung, A., and Wright, E. O. (Eds.), Deepening democracy: Institutional innovations in empowered participatory governance. London and New York: Verso Books.Google Scholar
Baldwin, C. Y. (2007). Where do transactions come from? Modularity, transactions, and the boundaries of firms. Industrial and Corporate Change, 17:155–195.Google Scholar
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Colquitt, J. A. and George, G. (2011). Publishing in AMJ: Topic choice. Academy of Management Journal, 54: 432–435.Google Scholar
Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (2001). Participation: The new tyranny? London and New York: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Dutt, N., Hawn, O., Vidal, E., Chatterji, A., McGahan, A. and Mitchell, W. (2016). How open system intermediaries fill voids in market-based institutions: The case of business incubators in emerging markets. Academy of Management Journal, 59(3): 818–840.Google Scholar
EcoConServ. (2010). Consultancy for upstream poverty and social impact analysis for Egypt’s solid waste management reform: Final report, December. Cairo, Egypt: The Ministry of Local Development, United Nations Development Programme, and the World Bank.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. and Graebner, M. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy Management Journal , 50(1): 25–32.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. M., Graebner, M. E. and Sonenshein, S. (2016). Grand challenges and inductive methods: Rigor without rigor mortis. Academy of Management Journal, 59 (4): 1113–23.Google Scholar
Fahmi, W. S. and Sutton, K. (2006). Cairo’s Zabbaleen garbage recyclers: Multi-nationals’ takeover and state relocation plans. Habitat International , 30: 812–815.Google Scholar
Fahmi, W. S. and Sutton, K. (2010). Cairo’s contested garbage: Sustainable solid waste management and the Zabbaleen’s right to the city. Sustainability, 2: 1765–83.Google Scholar
Ferraro, F., Etzion, D. and Gehman, J. (2015). Tackling grand challenges pragmatically: Robust action revisited. Organisation Studies, 36: 363–390.Google Scholar
Fjeldstad, Ø. D., Snow, C. C., Miles, R. E. and Lettl, C. (2012). The architecture of collaboration. Strategic Management Journal, 33(6): 734–750.Google Scholar
Gambardella, A., Panico, C. and Valentini, G. (2015). Strategic incentives to human capital. Strategic Management Journal, 36(1): 37–52.Google Scholar
George, G., Corbishley, C., Khayesi, J. N. O., Haas, M. R. and Tihanyi, L. (2016). Bringing Africa in: Promising directions for management research. Academy of Management Journal, 59(2): 377–393.Google Scholar
George, G., McGahan, A. M. and Prabhu, J. (2012). Innovation for inclusive growth: Towards a theoretical framework and a research agenda. Journal of Management Studies, 49: 661–683.Google Scholar
Gil, N., and Baldwin, C. (2013, September). Creating a design commons: Lessons from teachers’ participation in school design. Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 14–025.Google Scholar
Gil, N., Biesek, G. and Freeman, J. (2015). Inter-organisational development of flexible capital designs: The case of future-proofing infrastructure. IEEE Transactions in Engineering Management, 62(3): 335–350Google Scholar
Gil, N. and Pinto, J. (2018). Polycentric organising and performance: A contingency model and evidence from megaproject planning in the UK. Research Policy, 47 (4): 717–734.Google Scholar
Grodal, S. and O’Mahony, S. (2017). How does a grand challenge become displaced? Explaining the duality of field mobilisation. Academy of Management Journal, 60 (5): 1801–1827.Google Scholar
Gulati, R. and Puranam, P. (2009). Renewal through reorganization: The value of inconsistencies between formal and informal organization. Organization Science, 20(2): 422–440.Google Scholar
Gulati, R., Puranam, P. and Tushman, M. (2012). Meta-organisation design: Rethinking design in inter-organisational and community contexts. Strategic Management Journal, 33 (6): 571–86.Google Scholar
Harders, C. (2003). The informal social pact: The state and the urban poor in Cairo. In Kienle, E. (Ed.), Politics from above, politics from below: The Middle East in the age of economic reform. London: Saqi.Google Scholar
Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, New Series, 162 (3859):1243–1248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hegazy, I. R. (2016). Informal settlement upgrading policies in Egypt: Towards improvement in the upgrading process. Journal of Urbanism, 9(3): 254–275.Google Scholar
Iskander, L. (2000). Urban governance: Informal sector and municipal solid waste in Cairo. ‘Voices for Change – Partners for Prosperity’ for the MENA region. World Bank Conference.15th March, Washington.Google Scholar
Khalifa, M. A. (2015). Evolution of informal settlements upgrading policies in Egypt: From negligence to participatory development. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 6: 1151–1159.Google Scholar
Khanna, T. and Palepu, K. G. (1997). Why focused strategies may be wrong for emerging markets. Harvard Business Review, 75(4): 41–51.Google Scholar
Kumar, S. and Corbridge, S. (2002). Programmed to fail? Development projects and the politics of participation. Journal of Development Studies, 39(2): 73–103.Google Scholar
Libecap, G. D. (1989a). Contracting for property rights: Political economy of institutions and decisions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Libecap, G. D. (1989b). Distributional issues in contracting for property rights. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 145(1): 6–24.Google Scholar
Macneil, R. (1978) Contracts: Adjustments of long-term economic relations under classical, neoclassical, and relational contract law. Northwestern University Law Review, 72: 854–906.Google Scholar
Mair, J., Marti, I. and Ventresca, M. J. (2012). Building inclusive markets in rural Bangladesh: how intermediaries work institutional voids. Academy of Management Journal, 55(4): 819–850.Google Scholar
Majchrzak, A., Jarvenpaa, S. L., Hollingshead, A. B. (2007). Coordinating expertise among emergent groups responding to disasters. Organisation Science , 18:147–61Google Scholar
McDermott, G. A., Corredoira, R. A. and Kruse, G. (2009). Public–private institutions as catalysts of upgrading in emerging market societies. Academy of Management Journal , 52(6): 1270–1296.Google Scholar
NSWMP (2011). National solid waste management programme Egypt – Main report. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
NSWMP. (2014). National strategic directives for solid waste management in Egypt. National Solid Waste Management Programme, November. Cairo, Egypt: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
O’Mahony, S. and Bechky, B. A. (2008). Boundary organisations: Enabling collaboration among unexpected allies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53(3): 422–459.Google Scholar
Olsen, A. Ø., Sofka, W. and Grimpe, C. (2016). Coordinated exploration for grand challenges: The role of advocacy groups in search consortia. Academy of Management Journal, 59(6): 2232–55.Google Scholar
Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Osmani, S. (2008). Participatory governance: An overview of issues and evidence. Participatory governance and the Millennium Development Goals. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2005). Understanding institutional diversity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (2010). A long polycentric journey. Annual Review of Political Science, 13, 1–23.Google Scholar
Perkmann, M. and Schildt, H. (2015). Open-data partnerships between firms and universities: The role of boundary organisations. Research Policy, 44(5): 1133–1143.Google Scholar
Platteau, J. P. and Abraham, A. (2002). Participatory development in the presence of endogenous community imperfections. Journal of Development Studies, 39(2): 104–136.Google Scholar
Puranam, P., Alexy, O., and Reitzig, M. (2014). What’s ‘new’ about new forms of organizing? Academy of Management Review, 39(2): 162–180.Google Scholar
Reetz, D. K. and MacAulay, S. C. (2017). Finding novelty through co-evolutionary search. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1: 12807.Google Scholar
Rigon, A. (2014). Building local governance: Participation and elite capture in slum-upgrading in Kenya. Development and Change, 45: 257–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivkin, J. W. and Siggelkow, N. 2003. Balancing search and stability: Interdependencies among elements of organisational design. Management Science, 49(3): 290–311.Google Scholar
Scheinberg, A., Simpson, M. H., Gupt, Y. et al. (2010). Economic aspects of the informal sector in solid waste. Eschborn, Germany: GTZ.Google Scholar
Schlager, E. and Ostrom, E. (1992). Property-rights regimes and natural resources: A conceptual analysis. Land Economics, 68(3): 249–62.Google Scholar
Siggelkow, N. (2007). Persuasion with case studies. Academy of Management Journal , 50(1): 20–24.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1962). The architecture of complexity. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 156: 467–482.Google Scholar
Sims, D.(2010). Understanding Cairo: The logic of a city out of control. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.Google Scholar
Tan-Mullins, M., Mohan, G. and Power, M. (2010). Redefining ‘aid’ in the China–Africa context. Development and Change, 41: 857–881.Google Scholar
UN. (2018). World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision, online edition. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. New York: United Nations.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat. (2003). The challenge of slums: Global report on human settlements. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN Habitat. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat. (2008). State of the world’s cities 2008/2009: Harmonious cities.Google Scholar
UN-Habitat. (2015). Habitat III issue papers. 22 – Informal settlements. United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, New York, 31 May.Google Scholar
Walker, M. (2013). Why is waste a dirty word? In Madhavan, G. et al. (Eds.), Practicing sustainability. New York: Springer Science Business Media.Google Scholar
Wilson, D. C., Velis, C. and Cheeseman, C. (2006). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. Habitat International, 30: 797–808.Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. (1979). Transaction-cost economics: The governance of contractual relations. Journal of Law and Economics, 22(2): 233–261.Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. (1985). The economic institutions of capitalism. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Williamson, O. E. (1991). Comparative economic organisation: The analysis of discrete structural alternatives. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36 (June): 269–296.Google Scholar
World Bank. (2004). World development report 2004: Making services work for poor people. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Xin, K. R. and Pearce, J. L. (1996). Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support. Academy of Management Journal, 39(6): 1641–1658.Google Scholar
Aghion, P. and Tirole, J. (1997). Formal and real authority in organisations. The Journal of Political Economy, 105(1); 1–29.Google Scholar
Armanios, D. E., Eesley, C. E., Li, J. and Eisenhardt, K .M. (2017). How entrepreneurs leverage institutional intermediaries in emerging economies to acquire public resources. Strategic Management Journal, 38: 1373–1390.Google Scholar
Arusha. (1990). African charter on popular participation in development and transformation. International Conference on Popular Participation in the Recovery and Development Process in Africa. 12–16 February, Arusha, the United Republic of Tanzania.Google Scholar
AUC. (2014). Egypt’s strategy for dealing with slums. New Cairo: Center for Sustainable Development, the American University in Cairo.Google Scholar
Baiocchi, G. (2003). Participation, activism and politics: The Porto Alegre Experiment. In Fung, A., and Wright, E. O. (Eds.), Deepening democracy: Institutional innovations in empowered participatory governance. London and New York: Verso Books.Google Scholar
Baldwin, C. Y. (2007). Where do transactions come from? Modularity, transactions, and the boundaries of firms. Industrial and Corporate Change, 17:155–195.Google Scholar
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Colquitt, J. A. and George, G. (2011). Publishing in AMJ: Topic choice. Academy of Management Journal, 54: 432–435.Google Scholar
Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (2001). Participation: The new tyranny? London and New York: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Dutt, N., Hawn, O., Vidal, E., Chatterji, A., McGahan, A. and Mitchell, W. (2016). How open system intermediaries fill voids in market-based institutions: The case of business incubators in emerging markets. Academy of Management Journal, 59(3): 818–840.Google Scholar
EcoConServ. (2010). Consultancy for upstream poverty and social impact analysis for Egypt’s solid waste management reform: Final report, December. Cairo, Egypt: The Ministry of Local Development, United Nations Development Programme, and the World Bank.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. and Graebner, M. (2007). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges. Academy Management Journal , 50(1): 25–32.Google Scholar
Eisenhardt, K. M., Graebner, M. E. and Sonenshein, S. (2016). Grand challenges and inductive methods: Rigor without rigor mortis. Academy of Management Journal, 59 (4): 1113–23.Google Scholar
Fahmi, W. S. and Sutton, K. (2006). Cairo’s Zabbaleen garbage recyclers: Multi-nationals’ takeover and state relocation plans. Habitat International , 30: 812–815.Google Scholar
Fahmi, W. S. and Sutton, K. (2010). Cairo’s contested garbage: Sustainable solid waste management and the Zabbaleen’s right to the city. Sustainability, 2: 1765–83.Google Scholar
Ferraro, F., Etzion, D. and Gehman, J. (2015). Tackling grand challenges pragmatically: Robust action revisited. Organisation Studies, 36: 363–390.Google Scholar
Fjeldstad, Ø. D., Snow, C. C., Miles, R. E. and Lettl, C. (2012). The architecture of collaboration. Strategic Management Journal, 33(6): 734–750.Google Scholar
Gambardella, A., Panico, C. and Valentini, G. (2015). Strategic incentives to human capital. Strategic Management Journal, 36(1): 37–52.Google Scholar
George, G., Corbishley, C., Khayesi, J. N. O., Haas, M. R. and Tihanyi, L. (2016). Bringing Africa in: Promising directions for management research. Academy of Management Journal, 59(2): 377–393.Google Scholar
George, G., McGahan, A. M. and Prabhu, J. (2012). Innovation for inclusive growth: Towards a theoretical framework and a research agenda. Journal of Management Studies, 49: 661–683.Google Scholar
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