Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T17:26:21.420Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - The Interaction of Biological and Social Measures in the Explanation of Antisocial and Violent Behavior

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 July 2009

Adrian Raine
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Southern California
David M. Stoff
Affiliation:
National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland
Elizabeth J. Susman
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Get access

Summary

INTRODUCTION

One of the important contributions to the understanding of antisocial and aggressive behavior has come from research that spanned the areas of animal research (Cairns, Hood, & Midlam, 1985), genetic processes (Cairns, McGuire, & Gariepy, 1993), attachment (Cairns, 1966), social interactions (Cairns & Valsiner, 1984), and developmental epistemology (Cairns, 1990). Unlike much other research, this integrative vision of science was not blinded by the interdisciplinary rivalries that have both pervaded and impeded the study of antisocial behavior. Instead, by viewing genetic, biological, psychological, and social influences as equal partners in the explanation of antisocial and aggressive behavior, more significant and lasting advances can be made in this field.

In this context, important progress has been made in delineating replicable psychosocial risk factors for antisocial and violent behavior (Farrington, 2000; Loeber & Farrington, 1998; McCord, 2001; Rutter, Giller, & Hagell, 1998). Within the past 15 years, important progress has also been made in uncovering biological risk factors that predispose to antisocial behavior (Lahey, McBurnett, Loeber, & Hart, 1995; Susman & Finkelstein, 2001). Despite this progress, we know surprisingly little about how these different sets of risk factors interact in predisposing to antisocial behavior. Furthermore, although passing heuristic and theoretical references are frequently made to such interactional influences, there are remarkably few investigators who are conducting serious empirical research on this interface in humans (Raine, Brennan, & Farrington, 1997).

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Archer, J. (1991). The influence of testosterone on human aggression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 82, 1–28CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arsenault, L., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B., & Saucier, J. F. (2002). Obstetrical complications and violent delinquency: Testing two developmental pathways. Child Development 73, 496–508CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arseneault, L., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B., Seguin, J. R., & Saucier, J. F. (2000). Minor physical anomalies and family adversity as risk factors for violent delinquency in adolescence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 917–923CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R., & Mednick, S. A. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 215–219CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brennan, P. A., Mednick, B. R., & Mednick, S. A. (1993). Parental psychopathology, congenital factors, and violence. In , S. Hodgins (Ed.), Mental disorder and crime (pp. 244–261). Thousand Oaks, CA: SageGoogle Scholar
Brennan, P. A., Mednick, S. A., & Raine, A. (1997). Biosocial interactions and violence: A focus on perinatal factors. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 163–174). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brennan, P. A., & Raine, A. (1997). Biosocial bases of antisocial behavior: Psychophysiological, neurological, and cognitive factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 589–604CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brennan, P. A., Raine, A., Schulsinger, F., Kirkegaard-Sorensen, L., Knop, J., Hutchings, B. (1997). Psychophysiological protective factors for male subjects at high risk for criminal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 853–855Google ScholarPubMed
Buikhuisen, W., Bontekoe, E. H., Plas-Korenhoff, C., & Buuren, S. (1984). Characteristics of criminals: The privileged offender. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 7, 301–313CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cadoret, R. J., Cain, C. A., & Crowe, R. R. (1983). Evidence for gene-environment interaction in the development of adolescent antisocial behavior. Behavior Genetics, 13, 301–310CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cadoret, R. J., Yates, W. R., Troughton, E., Woodworth, G., & Stewart, M. A. (1995). Genetic–environmental interaction in the genesis of aggressivity and conduct disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 916–924CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cairns, R. B. (1966). Attachment behavior of mammals. Psychological Review, 73, 409–426CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cairns, R. B. (1990). Developmental epistemology and self-knowledge: Towards a reinterpretation of self-esteem. In Greenberg, G. & Tobach, E. (Eds.), Theories of the evolution of knowing (pp. 69–86). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumGoogle Scholar
Cairns, R. B., Hood, K. E., & Midlam, J. (1985). On fighting in mice: Is there a sensitive period for isolation effects?Animal Behaviour, 33, 166–180CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cairns, R. B., McGuire, A. M., & Gariepy, J. L. (1993). Developmental behavior genetics: Fusion, correlated constraints, and timing. In Hay, D. F. & Angold, A. (Eds.), Precursors and causes in development and psychopathology (pp. 87–122). New York: WileyGoogle Scholar
Cairns, R. B., & Valsiner, J. (1984). Child psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 35, 553–577CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christiansen, K. O. (1977). A preliminary study of criminality among twins. In Mednick, S. A. and Christiansen, K. O. (Ed.), Biosocial bases of criminal behavior (pp. 89–108). New York: Gardner PressGoogle Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., & Gottesman, I. I. (1987). Genetic and environmental factors in antisocial behavior disorders. In The causes of crime: New biological approaches. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Cloninger, C. R., Sigvardsson, S., Bohman, M., & Knorring, A. L. (1982). Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees: II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environmental interactions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1242–1247CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crowe, R. R. (1974). An adoption study of antisocial personality. Archives of General Psychiatry, 31, 785–791CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dabbs, J. M. (1992). Testosterone measurements in social and clinical psychology. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 11, 302–321CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dabbs, J. M., & Morris, R. (1990). Testosterone, social class, and antisocial behavior in a sample of 4,462 men. Psychological Science, 1, 209–211CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: GP Putnam's SonsGoogle Scholar
Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (1990). Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli. Behavioural Brain Research, 41, 81–94CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., Harnish, J. D., & Bates, J. E. (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 37–51CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eysenck, H. J. (1977). Crime and personality. (3rd ed.) St. Albans: PaladinGoogle Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (1997). The relationship between low resting heart rate and violence. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 89–105). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of adult antisocial personality and adult convictions. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 18, 605–6223.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fast, D. K., Conry, J., & Loock, C. A. (1999). Identifying Fetal Alcohol Syndrome among youth in the criminal justice system. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 20, 370–372CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, D. C. (1993). Electrodermal activity and antisocial behavior: Empirical findings and theoretical issues. In Roy, J. C., Boucsein, W., Fowles, D. C., & Gruzelier, J. H. (Eds.), Progress in electrodermal research (pp. 223–237). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatzke-Kopp, L., Raine, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Steinhauer, S. (2002). Serious delinquent behavior, sensation seeking, and electrodermal arousal. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311–326CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., Cadoret, R. J., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (1996). The developmental interface between nature and nurture: A mutual influence model of child antisocial behavior and parent behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 574–589CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, C. L., & Tibbetts, S. G. (1998). Interaction between maternal cigarette smoking and Apgar scores in predicting offending behavior. Psychological Reports, 83, 579–586CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, C. L., & Tibbetts, S. G. (2000). A biosocial interaction in predicting early onset of offending. Psychological Reports, 86, 509–518CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guy, J. D., Majorski, L. V., Wallace, C. J., & Guy, M. P. (1983). The incidence of minor physical anomalies in adult male schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 9, 571–582CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamalainen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (1996). Problem behavior as a precursor of male criminality. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 443–455CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. A. (1999). Review and methodological considerations in research on testosterone and aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 4, 273–291CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemming, J. H. (1981). Electrodermal indices in a selected prison sample and students. Personality and Individual Differences, 2, 37–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P., & Anderson, C. A. (1996). Conduct and oppositional defiant disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 113–149). New York: Guilford PressGoogle Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P., Lahey, B. B., & Hart, E. L. (1993). Issues of taxonomy and comorbidity in the development of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 31–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgins, S., Kratzer, L., & Mcneil, T. F. (2001). Obstetric complications, parenting, and risk of criminal behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 746–752CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ishikawa, S. S., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., & LaCasse, L. (2001). Autonomic stress reactivity and executive functions in successful and unsuccessful criminal psychopaths from the community. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 423–432CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J. (1994). Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Basic BooksGoogle Scholar
Kemppainen, L., Jokelainen, J., Jaervelin, M. R., Isohanni, M., & Raesaenen, P. (2001). The one-child family and violent criminality: A 31-year follow-up study of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 960–962CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Koivisto, E., Savolainen, L., Eronen, M., Aronen, H. J. (2001). Psychopathy and the posterior hippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research, 118, 187–193CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., McBurnett, K., Loeber, R., & Hart, E. L. (1995). Psychobiology. In Sholevar, G. P. (Ed.), Conduct disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 27–44). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric PressGoogle Scholar
Laucht, M., Esser, G., Baving, L., Gerhold, M., Hoesch, I., Ihle, W. (2000). Behavioral sequelae of perinatal insults and early family adversity at 8 years of age. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1229–1237CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, E. D., Wilkerson, A., Jones, J. P., Christopher, N. C., & Briggs, S. J. (1996). Prenatal nicotine effects on memory in rats: Pharmacological and behavioral challenges. Developmental Brain Research, 97, 207–215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, D. O., Lovely, R., Yeager, C., & Dellafemina, D. (1989). Toward a theory of the genesis of violence – A follow-up study of delinquents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 431–436CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, D. O., Pincus, J. H., Bard, B., & Richardson, E. (1988). Neuropsychiatric, psychoeducational, and family characteristics of 14 juveniles condemned to death in the United States. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 584–589Google ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Never too early, never too late: Risk factors and successful interventions for serious and violent juvenile offenders. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 7, 7–30Google Scholar
Maliphant, R., Hume, F., & Furnham, A. (1990). Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity, personality characteristics, and disruptive behaviour in girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 31, 619–628CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masters, R. D., Hone, B., & Doshi, A. (1998). Environmental pollution, neurotoxicity, and criminal violence. In Rose, J. (Ed.), Environmental toxicology: Current developments (pp. 13–48). New York: Gordon and BreachCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mataro, M., Jurado, M. A., Garcia-Sanchez, C., Barraquer, L., Costa-Jussa, F. R., & Junque, C. (2001). Long-term effects of bilateral frontal brain lesion 60 years after injury with an iron bar. Archives of Neurology, 58, 1139–1142CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazur, A., & Booth, A. (1999). The biosociology of testosterone in men. In Franks, D. & Smith, S. (Eds.), Mind, brain, and society: Toward a neurosociology of emotion: Vol. 5. (pp. 311–338). Stamford; CT: JAI PressGoogle Scholar
McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 376–390CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCord, J. (2001). Psychosocial contributions to psychopathy and violence. In Raine, A. & Sanmartin, J. (Eds.), Violence and psychopathy (pp. 141–170). New York: Kluwer Academic/PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mednick, S. A. (1977). A bio-social theory of the learning of law-abiding behavior. In Mednick, S. A. & Christiansen, K. O. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of criminal behavior. New York: Gardner PressGoogle Scholar
Mednick, S. A., & Kandel, E. S. (1988). Congenital determinants of violence. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 16, 101–109Google ScholarPubMed
Miczek, K. A. (2001). Research on animal aggression: Emerging successes for understanding determinants of human violence. In Carroll, M. E. & Overmier, J. B. (Eds.), Animal research and human health: Advancing human welfare through behavioral science (pp. 41–61). Washington, DC: American Psychological AssociationCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1990a). The neuropsychology of delinquency: A critical review. In Tonry, M. and Morris, N. (Eds.), Crime and justice: A review of research (pp. 99–169). Chicago: University of Chicago PressGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1990b). Juvenile delinquency and Attention Deficit Disorder: Boys' developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893–910CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2001). Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females. Development & Psychopathology, 13, 355–375CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T., Caspi, A., Fawcett, P., Brammer, G. L., Raleigh, M., Yuwiler, A., et al. (1997). Whole blood serotonin and family background relate to male violence. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D. P., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 231–249). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive function. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 113–156CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niehoff, D. (1999). The biology of violence. New York: Free PressGoogle Scholar
Olds, D. (1997). Tobacco exposure and impaired development: A review of the evidence. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 3, 257–2693.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olds, D., Henderson, C. R. J., Cole, R., Eckenrode, J., Kitzman, H., Luckey, D. (1998). Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children's criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1238–1244CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, H. C., Streissguth, A. P., Sampson, P. D., Barr, H. M., Bookstein, F. L., & Thiede, K. (1997). Association of prenatal alcohol exposure with behavioral and learning problems in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1187–1194CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pine, D. S., Shaffer, D., Schonfeld, I. S., & Davies, M. (1997). Minor physical anomalies: Modifiers of environmental risks for psychiatric impairment?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 395–403CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piquero, A., & Tibbetts, S. (1999). The impact of pre/perinatal disturbances and disadvantaged familial environment in predicting criminal offending. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention, 8, 52–70Google Scholar
Plomin, R., & Rutter, M. (1998). Child development, molecular genetics, and what to do with genes once they are found. Child Development, 69, 1223–1242CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, H. G. J., Kouri, E. M., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 133–140CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quay, H. C. (1965). Psychopathic personality as pathological stimulation-seeking. American Journal of Psychiatry, 122, 180–183CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A. (1987). Effect of early environment on electrodermal and cognitive correlates of schizotypy and psychopathy in criminals. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 4, 277–287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A. (1993). The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder. San Diego: Academic PressGoogle Scholar
Raine, A. (1996). Autonomic nervous system activity and violence. In Stoff, D. M. & Cairns, R. B. (Eds.), Aggression and violence: Genetic, neurobiological, and biosocial perspectives (pp. 145–168). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumGoogle Scholar
Raine, A. (1997). Antisocial behavior and psychophysiology: A biosocial perspective and a prefrontal dysfunction hypothesis. In Stoff, D., Breiling, J., & Maser, J. D. (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 289–304). New York: WileyGoogle Scholar
Raine, A. (2002a). Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic arousal, and early health factors in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 417–434CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A. (2002b). The biological basis of crime. In Wilson, J. Q. & Petersilia, J. (Eds.), Crime: Public policies for crime control (pp. 43–74). San Francisco: ICS PressGoogle Scholar
Raine, A. (2002c). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311–326CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Brennan, P., & Farrington, D. P. (1997). Biosocial bases of violence: Conceptual and theoretical issues. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D. P., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 1–20). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Brennan, P., Mednick, B., & Mednick, S. A. (1996). High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 544–549CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Brennan, P., & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 984–988CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Brennan, P., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Interaction between birth complications and early maternal rejection in predisposing individuals to adult violence: Specificity to serious, early-onset violence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1265–1271Google ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M., & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 495–508CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Park, S., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., Widom, C. S. (2001). Reduced right hemisphere activation in severely abused violent offenders during a working memory task: An fMRI study. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 111–129CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H., Mednick, S. A., & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Fearlessness, stimulation-seeking, and large body size at age 3 years as early predispositions to childhood aggression at age 11 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 745–751CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Stoddard, J., Bihrle, S., & Buchsbaum, M. (1998). Prefrontal glucose deficits in murderers lacking psychosocial deprivation. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 11, 1–7Google ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., & Venables, P. H. (1981). Classical conditioning and socialization – a biosocial interaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 2, 273–283CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., & Venables, P. H. (1984a). Electrodermal nonresponding, antisocial behavior, and schizoid tendencies in adolescents. Psychophysiology, 21, 424–433CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., & Venables, P. H. (1984b). Tonic heart rate level, social class and antisocial behaviour in adolescents. Biological Psychology, 18, 123–132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C., Mellingen, K., Reynolds, C., & Mednick, S. A. (2001). Early educational and health enrichment at age 3–5 years is associated with increased autonomic and central nervous system arousal and orienting at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project. Psychophysiology, 38, 254–266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Low resting heart rate at age 3 years predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1457–1464CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Williams, M. (1995). High autonomic arousal and electrodermal orienting at age 15 years as protective factors against criminal behavior at age 29 years. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1595–1600Google ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Williams, M. (1996). Better autonomic conditioning and faster electrodermal half-recovery time at age 15 years as possible protective factors against crime at age 29 years. Developmental Psychology, 32, 624–630CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rasanen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Jarvelin, M. R., & Tiihonen, J. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the northern Finland 1996 birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 857–862CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowe, D. C. (2001). Biology and crime. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing CompanyGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. L. (1997). Nature–nurture integration: The example of antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 52, 390–398CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M., Giller, H., & Hagell, A. (1998). Antisocial behavior by young people. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Scarpa, A., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Heart rate and skin conductance in behaviorally inhibited Mauritian children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 182–190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarpa, A., Romero, N., Fikretoglu, D., Bowser, F. M., & Wilson, J. W. (1999). Community violence exposure and aggression: Biosocial interactions. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Toronto, Canada
Slotkin, T. A., Epps, T. A., Stenger, M. L., Sawyer, K. J., & Seidler, F. J. (1999). Cholinergic receptors in heart and brainstem of rats exposed to nicotine during development: implications for hypoxia tolerance and perinatal mortality. Brain Research, 113, 1–12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sparling, Y. A., & Cohen, R. (1997). Neurobehavioral influences on propensity for juvenile violence. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 9, 134–135Google Scholar
Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. M., Bookstein, F. L., Sampson, P. D., & Olson, H. C. (1999). The long-term neurocognitive consequences of prenatal alcohol exposure: A 14-year study. Psychological Science, 10, 186–190CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Streissguth, A. P., Barr, H. H., Kogan, J., & Bookstein, F. L. (1996). Understanding the occurrence of secondary disabilities in clients with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE). Seattle: Washington Publication ServicesGoogle Scholar
Suomi, S. J. (1999). Developmental trajectories, early experiences, and community consequences: Lessons from studies with rhesus monkeys. In Keating, D. P. & Hertzman, Clyde (Eds.), Developmental health and the wealth of nations: Social, biological, and educational dynamics (pp. 185–200). New York: Guilford PressGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J. (1993). Psychological, contextual, and psychobiological interactions: A developmental perspective on conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 181–189CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., & Finkelstein, J. W. (2001). Biology, development, and dangerousness. In Pined, G. F. & Pagani, L. (Eds.), Clinical assessment of dangerousness: Empirical contributions (pp. 23–46). New York: Cambridge University PressGoogle Scholar
Susman, E. J., & Ponirakis, A. (1997). Hormones–context interaction and antisocial behavior in youth. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 251–269). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarter, R. E., Hegedus, A. M., Winsten, N. E., & Alterman, A. I. (1984). Neuropsychological, personality, and familial characteristics of physically abused delinquents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 23, 668–674CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tremblay, R. E., Schaal, B., Boulerice, B., Arseneault, L., Soussignan, R., & Perusse, D. (1997). Male physical aggression, social dominance, and testosterone levels at puberty: A developmental perspective. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D. P., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 271–291). New York: PlenumCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volkow, N. D., Tancredi, L. R., Grant, C., Gillespie, H., Valentine, A., Nullani, N. (1995). Brain glucose metabolism in violent psychiatric patients: A preliminary study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 61, 243–253CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wadsworth, M. E. J. (1976). Delinquency, pulse rate and early emotional deprivation. British Journal of Criminology, 16, 245–256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werner, E. E. (1987). Vulnerability and resiliency in children at risk for delinquency: A longitudinal study from birth to young adulthood. In Burchard, J. D. & Burchard, S. N. (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology (pp. 16–43). Newbury Park, CA: SageGoogle Scholar
Widom, C. S. (1997). Child abuse, neglect, and witnessing violence. In Stoff, D. M., Breiling, J., & Maser, J. D. (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 159–170). New York: WileyGoogle Scholar
Williams, L. M., Brammer, M. J., Skerrett, D., Lagopolous, J., Rennie, C., Kozek, K. (2000). The neural correlates of orienting: an integration of fMRI and skin conductance orienting. Neuroreport, 11, 3011–3015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×