References
Abbott, Edith. 1915. “Are Women a Force for Good Government? An Analysis of the Returns in the Recent Municipal Election in Chicago.” National Municipal Review IV(July):437–447.
Aldrich, John H. 1993. “Rational Choice and Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 37 (February):246–278.
Allen, Florence E. 1930. “The First Ten Years.” The Woman’s Journal August:5–7, 30–32.
Allen, Frederick Lewis. 1957. Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties. New York: Harper & Row.
Alpern, Sara, and Baum, Dale. 1985. “Female Ballots: The Impact of the Nineteenth Amendment.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26(Summer):43–67.
Alt, James A. 1994. “The Impact of the Voting Rights Act on Black and White Voter Registration in the South.” In Quiet Revolution in the South: The Impact of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–1990, eds. Davidson, Chandler and Groffman, Bernard, 351–377. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
American National Election Studies (ANES). 2010. Cumulative Data File, 1948–2008. Release Version: 20100624. June 24.
Andersen, Kristi. 1979. The Creation of a Democratic Majority, 1928–1936. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Andersen, Kristi. 1990. “Women and Citizenship in the 1920s.” In Women, Politics, and Change, eds. Tilly, Louise and Gurin, Patricia, 177–198. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Andersen, Kristi. 1994. “Women and the Vote in the 1920s: What Happened in Oregon.” Women & Politics 14(4):43–56.
Andersen, Kristi. 1996. After Suffrage: Women in Partisan and Electoral Politics before the New Deal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Andersen, Kristi. 2014. “Constructing a New Majority: The Depression, the New Deal, and the Democrats.” In The CQ Guide to U.S. Political Parties, eds. Hershey, Majorie R., Burden, Barry C., and Wolbrecht, Christina, 103–115. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.
Arceneaux, Kevin, and Nickerson, David W.. 2009. “Who Is Mobilized to Vote? A Re-Analysis of 11 Field Experiments.” American Journal of Political Science 53(January):1–16.
Arneson, Ben A. 1925. “Non-Voting in a Typical Ohio Community.” American Political Science Review 19(November):816–825.
Arneson, Ben A., and Eels, William H.. 1950. “Voting Behavior in 1948 as Compared with 1924 in a Typical Ohio Community.” American Political Science Review 44(June):432–434.
Bagby, Wesley M. 1962. The Road to Normalcy: The Presidential Campaign and Election of 1920. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Baker, Paula. 1984. “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920.” American Historical Review 89(June):620–647.
Banaszak, Lee Ann. 1996. Why Movements Succeed or Fail: Opportunity, Culture, and the Struggle for Woman Suffrage. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Banaszak, Lee Ann. 2010. The Women’s Movement Inside and Outside the State. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Barnard, Eunice Fuller. 1928a. “Women Who Yield Political Power.” The New York Times Magazine (September 2):6–7, 23.
Barnard, Eunice Fuller. 1928b. “Women in the Campaign.” The Woman’s Journal 13(December):7ff.
Barnard, Eunice Fuller. 1928c. “The Woman Voter Gains Power.” The New York Times Magazine (12 August):1–2, 20, 28.
Beard, Mary R. 1946. Woman as Force in History: A Study in Traditions and Realities. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Beck, Paul Allen, and Jennings, M. Kent. 1991. “Family Traditions, Political Periods, and the Development of Partisan Orientations.” Journal of Politics 53(August):742–763.
Becker, Susan D. 1981. The Origins of the Equal Rights Amendment: American Feminism Between the Wars. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Beckwith, Karen. 1986. American Women and Political Participation: The Impacts of Work, Generations, and Feminism. New York: Greenwood Press.
Bensel, Richard Franklin. 2000. The Political Economy of American Industrialization, 1877–1900. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bensel, Richard Franklin. 2004. The American Ballot Box in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Berelson, Bernard R., Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and McPhee, William N.. 1954. Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Election. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Berinsky, Adam J. 2006. “American Public Opinion in the 1930s and 1940s: The Analysis of Quota-Controlled Sample Survey Data.” Public Opinion Quarterly 70(Winter):499–529.
Berinsky, Adam J., Powell, Eleanor Neff, Schickler, Eric, and Yohai, Ian Brett. 2011. “Revisting Public Opinion in the 1930s and 1940s.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44(July):515–520.
Berman, David R. 1993. “Gender and Issue Voting: The Policy Effects of Suffrage Expansion in Arizona.” Social Science Quarterly 74(December):838–850.
Blair, Emily Newell. 1925. “Are Women a Failure in Politics?” Harper’s Magazine 151(October):513–522.
Blair, Emily Newell. 1926. “Men in Politics as a Woman See Them.” Harper’s Magazine 152(May): 703–709.
Blair, Emily Newell. 1931. “Why I Am Discouraged About Women in Politics.” The Woman’s Journal January:20–22.
Blakey, Gladys C. 1928. A Handy Digest of Election Laws. Washington, DC: League of Women Voters.
Bonk, Kathy. 1988. “The Selling of the ‘Gender Gap:’ The Role of Organized Feminism.” In The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence, ed. Mueller, Carol M., 82–101. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Box-Steffensmeier, Jan, De Boef, Suzanna, and Lin, Tse-Min. 2004. “The Dynamics of the Partisan Gender Gap.” American Political Science Review 98(August):515–528.
Breckinridge, Sophonisba P. 1933. Women in the Twentieth Century: A Study of their Political, Social and Economic Activities. New York: MGraw-Hill Book Company.
Brewer, Mark D., and Stonecash, Jeffrey M.. 2009. Dynamics of American Political Parties. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, Courtney. 1988. “Mass Dynamics of U.S. Presidential Competitions, 1928–1936.” American Political Science Review 82(December):1153–1181.
Brown, Courtney. 1991. Ballots of Tumult: A Portrait of Volatility in American Voting. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Bunche, Ralph J. 1973. The Political Status of the Negro in the Age of FDR. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Burner, David. 1971. “Election of 1924.” In History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, eds. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. and Israel, Fred L., 2458–2581. New York: Chelsea House Publishers in Association with McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Burner, David. 1986. The Politics of Provincialism: The Democratic Party in Transition, 1918–1932, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1965. “The Changing Shape of the American Political Universe.” American Political Science Review 59(March):7–28.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1967. “Party Systems and the Political Process.” In The American Party Systems: Stages of Political Development, eds. Chambers, William Nesbit and Burnham, Walter Dean, 277–307. New York: Oxford University Press.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1970. Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics. New York: W. W. Norton.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1974. “Theory and Voting Research: Some Reflections on Converse’s ‘Change in the American Electorate.’” American Political Science Review 68(September):1002–1023.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1980. “The Appearance and Disappearance of the American Voter.” In Electoral Participation: A Comparative Analysis, ed. Rose, Richard, 35–73. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1981a. “The System of 1896: An Analysis.” In The Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Kleppner, Paul, Burnham, Walter Dean, Formisano, Ronald P., Hays, Samuel P., Jensen, Richard, and Shade, William G., 147–202. Westport CT: Greenwood Press.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1981b. “Printed Sources.” In Analyzing Electoral History: A Guide to the Study of American Voting Behavior, eds. Chubb, Jerome M., Flanigan, William H., and Zingale, Nancy H., 42–70. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
Burnham, Walter Dean. 1986. “Those High Nineteenth-Century American Voting Turnouts: Fact or Fiction?” Journal of Interdisciplinary History XVI(Spring):613–644.
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Butler, Sarah Schuyler. 1924. “Women Who Do Not Vote.” Scribner’s Magazine 76(November):529–533.
Cain, Bruce E., Kiewiet, D. Roderick, and Uhlaner, Carole J.. 1991. “The Acquisition of Partisanship by Latinos and Asian Americans.” American Journal of Political Science 35(May):390–422.
Campbell, Angus. 1960. “Surge and Decline: A Study of Electoral Change.” Public Opinion Quarterly 24(Fall):397–418.
Campbell, Angus. 1964. “Voters and Elections: Past and Present.” Journal of Politics 26(November): 745–757.
Campbell, Angus. 1966. “A Classification of the Presidential Elections.” In Elections and the Political Order, eds. Campbell, Angus, Philip E. Converse, and Donald E. Stokes, 63–77. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Campbell, Angus, Converse, Philip E., Miller, Warren E., and Stokes, Donald E.. 1960. The American Voter. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Campbell, Angus, Converse, Philip E., Miller, Warren E., and Stokes, Donald E.. 1966. Elections and the Political Order. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Campbell, David. 2008. Why We Vote: How Schools and Communities Shape Our Civic Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Campbell, James E. 1985. “Sources of the New Deal Realignment: The Contributions of Conversion and Mobilization to Partisan Change.” Western Political Quarterly 38(September):357–376.
Carroll, Susan J. 2006. “Voting Choices: Meet You at the Gender Gap.” In Gender and Elections: Shaping the Future of American Politics, eds. Carroll, Susan J. and Fox, Richard L., 74–96. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Catt, Carrie Chapman. 1925. “What Women Have Done with the Vote.” The Independent 115(October 17):447–448, 456.
Center for American Women and Politics (CAWP). 2014. “Fact Sheet: Gender Differences in Voter Turnout.” Center for American Women and Politics, Eagleton Institute of Politics, Rutgers University.
Chafe, William H. 1972. The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920–1970. New York: Oxford University Press.
Chaney, Carole Kennedy, Alvarez, R. Michael, and Nagler, Jonathan. 1998. “Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980–1992.” Political Research Quarterly 51:311–339.
Cho, Wendy K. Tam, and Gaines, Brian J.. 2004. “The Limits of Ecological Inference: The Case of Split-Ticket Voting.” American Journal of Political Science 48(1):152–171.
Claggett, William. 1980. “The Life Cycle and Generational Models of the Development of Partisanship: A Test Based on the Delayed Enfranchisement of Women.” Social Science Quarterly 4(March):643–650.
Claggett, William. 1982. “Life Cycle Model of Partisanship Development: An Analysis of Aggregate Electoral Instability Following the Enfranchisement of Women.” American Politics Quarterly 10(April):219–230.
Clemens, Elisabeth S. 1993. “Organizational Repertoires and Institutional Change: Women’s Groups and the Transformation of U.S. Politics, 1890–1920.” American Journal of Sociology 98(January):755–798.
Clemens, Elisabeth S. 1997. The People’s Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1925. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Converse, Phillip E. 1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics.” In Ideology and Discontent, ed. Apter, David, 206–261. New York: The Free Press.
Converse, Philip E. 1969. “Of Time and Partisan Stability.” Comparative Political Studies 2(July):139–171.
Converse, Philip E. 1972. “Change in the American Electorate.” In The Human Meaning of Social Change, eds. Campbell, Angus and Converse, Philip E., 263–337. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Converse, Philip E. 1974. “Comment on Burnham’s ‘Theory and Voting Research.’” American Political Science Review 68(September):1024–1027.
Converse, Philip E. 1976. The Dynamics of Party Support: Cohort-Analyzing Party Identification. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
Cook, Elizabeth Adell, and Wilcox, Clyde. 1991. “Feminism and the Gender Gap—A Second Look.” Journal of Politics 53:1111–1122.
Corder, J. Kevin. 2005. “Ecological Inference.” In Polling America: An Encyclopedia of Public Opinion, eds. Best, Samuel and Radcliff, Benjamin, 166–170. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Corder, J. Kevin, and Wolbrecht, Christina. 2006. “Political Context and the Turnout of New Women Voters After Suffrage.” Journal of Politics 68(February):34–49.
Cott, Nancy F. 1975. The Bonds of Womanhood: Woman’s Sphere in New England, 1790–1835. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Cott, Nancy F. 1987. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Cott, Nancy F. 1990. “Across the Great Divide: Women in Politics Before and After 1920.” In Women, Politics, and Change, eds. Tilly, Louise and Gurin, Patricia, 153–176. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
CQ Press. 2010. Guide to U.S. Elections, 6th ed. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Crawford, William H. 1924. “A Big Woman Vote Seen by Mrs. Sabin.” The New York Times, 27 October, p. 8.
Crossley, Archibald M. 1937. “Straw Polls in 1936.” Public Opinion Quarterly 1(January):24–37.
Darmofal, David, and Nardulli, Peter F.. 2010. “The Dynamics of Critical Realignments: An Analysis of Time and Space.” Political Behavior 32:255–283.
Degler, Carl N. 1964. “American Political Parties and the Rise of the City: An Interpretation.” Journal of American History 51(June):41–59.
Douthat, Ross. 2012. “President in Shining Armor.” The New York Times, October 27.
DuBois, Ellen Carol. 1978. Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women’s Movement in America, 1848–1869. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
DuBois, Ellen Carol. 1998. Woman Suffrage and Women’s Rights. New York: New York University Press.
Dugan, William E., and Taggart, William A.. 1995. “The Changing Shape of the American Political Universe Revisited.” Journal of Politics 57(May):469–482.
Duncan, Otis Dudley, and Davis, Beverly. 1953. “An Alternative to Ecological Correlation.” American Sociological Review 18:665–666.
Duverger, Maurice. 1955. The Political Role of Women. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Edwards, Rebecca B. 1997. Angels in the Machinery: Gender in American Party Politics from the Civil War to the Progressive Era. New York: Oxford University Press.
Epstein, Lee, and Walker, Thomas G.. 1995. Constitutional Law for a Changing America: Institutional Powers and Constraints, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Erie, Steven P., and Rein, Martin. 1988. “Women and the Welfare State.” In The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Erikson, Robert S., and Tedin, Kent L.. 1981. “The 1928–1936 Partisan Realignment: The Case for the Conversion Hypothesis.” American Political Science Review 75:951–962.
Erwin, Marie H. 1946. Wyoming Historical Blue Book: A Legal and Political History of Wyoming, 1868–1943. Denver: Bradford-Robinson Printing Co.
Evans, Sara M. 1989. Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America. New York: The Free Press.
Ferree, Karen. 2004. “Iterative Approaches to R x C Ecological Inference Problems: Where They Can Go Wrong and One Quick Fix.” Political Analysis 12:143–159.
Firebaugh, Glenn, and Chen, Kevin. 1995. “Vote Turnout of Nineteenth Century Women: The Enduring Effect of Disenfranchisement.” American Journal of Sociology 100(January):972–996.
Fisher, Marguerite J. 1947. “Women in the Political Parties.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 251(May):87–93.
Flanagan, Maureen A. 1995. “The Predicament of New Rights: Suffrage and Women’s Political Power from a Local Perspective.” Social Politics 2(Fall):305–330.
Flexner, Eleanor. 1959. Century of Struggle: The Women’s Rights Movement in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Freedman, Estelle. 1979. “Separatism as Strategy: Female Institution Building and American Feminism, 1870–1930.” Feminist Studies 5(Fall):512–529.
Freeman, Jo. 2000. A Room at a Time: How Women Entered Party Politics. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Freidel, Frank. 1971. “Election of 1932.” In History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, eds. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. and Israel, Fred L., 2706–2806. New York: Chelsea House Publishers in Association with McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Fuchs, Lawrence H. 1955. “American Jews and the Presidential Vote.” American Political Science Review 49(June):385–401.
Fuchs, Lawrence H. 1971. “Election of 1928.” In History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, eds. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. and Israel, Fred L., 2584–2704. New York: Chelsea House Publishers in Association with McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Gamm, Gerald. 1986. The Making of the New Deal Democrats: Voting Behavior and Realignment in Boston, 1920–1940. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gerber, Alan S., Green, Donald P., and Shachar, Ron. 2003. “Voting May Be Habit-Forming: Evidence from a Randomized Field Experiment.” American Journal of Political Science 47(July):540–550.
Gerould, Katharine Fullerton. 1925. “Some American Women and the Vote.” Scribner’s Magazine 127(May):449–452.
Gill, Jeff. 2002. Bayesian Methods: A Social and Behavioral Sciences Approach. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman and Hall.
Gillion, Daniel Q., Ladd, Jonathan M., and Meredith, Marc. 2015. “Party Polarization, Ideological Sorting, and the Emergence of the Partisan Gender Gap.” Georgetown University, Working Paper, July 2.
Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. 1996. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
Ginsberg, Benjamin, Lowi, Theodore J., and Weir, Margaret. 2009. We the People: An Introduction to American Politics. Shorter 7th ed. New York: W. W. Norton.
Glaser, William A. 1962. “Fluctuations in Turnout.” In Public Opinion and Congressional Elections, eds. McPhee, William N. and Glaser, William A., 19–51. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.
Goldstein, Joel H. 1984. The Effects of the Adoption of Woman Suffrage: Sex Differences in Voting Behavior Illinois, 1914–21. New York: Praeger.
Goodman, Leo. 1953. “Ecological Regressions and Behavior of Individuals.” American Sociological Review 18:663–664.
Gordon, Felice D. 1986. After Winning: The Legacy of the New Jersey Suffragists, 1920–1947. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Gosnell, Harold F. 1927. Getting Out the Vote: An Experiment in the Stimulation of Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gosnell, Harold F. 1930. Why Europe Votes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gosnell, Harold F. 1942. Grassroots Politics: National Voting Behavior of Typical States. Washington, DC: American Council on Public Affairs.
Gosnell, Harold F., and Gill, Norman N.. 1935. “An Analysis of the 1932 Presidential Vote in Chicago.” American Political Science Review 29(December):967–984.
Goss, Kirstin A. 2013. The Paradox of Gender Equality: How American Women’s Groups Gained and Lost Their Public Voice. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Gould, Louis L. 2003. Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans. New York: Random House.
Gourevitch, Peter Alexis. 1984. “Breaking with Orthodoxy: The Politics of Economic Policy Responses to the Depression of the 1930s.” International Organization 38(Winter):95–129.
Green, Donald P., Palmquist, Bradley, and Schickler, Eric. 2002. Partisan Hearts and Minds: Political Parties and the Social Identity of Voters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Green, Elna C. 1996. Southern Strategies: Southern Women and the Woman Suffrage Question. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Greenlee, Jill S. 2014. The Political Consequences of Motherhood. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Greiner, D. James, and Quinn, Kevin. 2009. “R x C Ecological Inference: Bounds, Correlations, Flexibility, and Transparency of Assumptions.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A 172:67–81.
Harris, Louis. 1954. Is There a Republican Majority? Political Trends, 1952–1956. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Harvey, Anna L. 1998. Votes Without Leverage: Women in Electoral Politics, 1920–1970. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hawley, George, and Sagarazu, Inaki. 2012. “Where Did the Votes Go? Reassessing American Party Realignments via Vote Transfers between Major Parties from 1860 to 2008.” Electoral Studies 31:726–739.
Heard, Alexander, and Strong, Donald S.. 1950. Southern Primaries and Elections, 1920–1949. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Hicks, John D. 1960. Republican Ascendancy, 1921–1933. New York: Harper & Row.
Hillygus, D. Sunshine. 2005. “Campaign Effects and the Dynamics of Turnout Intention in Election 2000,” Journal of Politics 66(1):50–68
Hofstadter, Richard. 1955. The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Holbrook, Thomas M., and Van Dunk, Emily. 1993. “Electoral Competition in the American States.” American Political Science Review 87(December):955–962.
Huckfeldt, Robert, Beck, Paul Allen, Dalton, Russell J., and Levine, Jeffrey. 1995. “Political Environments, Cohesive Social Groups, and the Communication of Public Opinion.” American Journal of Political Science 29(November): 1025–1054.
Huddy, Leonie, Cassese, Erin, and Lizotte, Mary-Kate. 2008. “Gender, Public Opinion, and Political Reasoning.” In Political Women and American Democracy, eds Christina Wolbrecht, Karen Beckwith, and Lisa Baldez, 31–49. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Huthmacher, J. Joseph. 1959. Massachusetts People and Politics, 1919–1933. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR). 1992. Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790–1970 [Computer file]. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor].
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR). 1999. United States Historical Election Returns, 1824–1968 [Computer file]. 2nd ICPSR ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [producer and distributor].
Jeffries, John W. 1979. Testing the Roosevelt Coalition: Connecticut Society and Politics in the Era of World War II. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
Jennings, M. Kent, and Markus, Gregory B.. 1984. “Partisan Orientations over the Long Haul: Results from the Three-Wave Political Socialization Panel Study.” American Political Science Review 4(December):1000–1018.
Jensen, Joan M. 1981. “‘Disenfranchisement is a Disgrace’: Women and Politics in New Mexico, 1900–1940.” New Mexico Historical Review 56(1):5–35.
Jensen, Richard. 1986. “The Changing Shape of Burnham’s Political Universe.” Social Science History 10(Fall):209–219.
Johnston, Richard. 2006. “Party Identification: Unmoved Mover or Sum of Preferences?” Annual Review of Political Science 9:329–351.
Judd, Dennis R., and Swanstrom, Todd. 1994. City Politics: Private Power and Public Policy. New York: HarperCollins.
Kaufmann, Karen M. 2006. “The Gender Gap.” PS: Political Science and Politics 39(July):447–453.
Kaufmann, Karen M., and Petrocik, John R.. 1999. “The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap.” American Journal of Political Science 43:864–887.
Kaufmann, Karen M., Petrocik, John R., and Shaw, Daron R.. 2008. Unconventional Wisdom: Facts and Myths about American Voters. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kenton, Edna. 1924. “Four Years of Equal Suffrage.” Forum 72:37–44.
Kerber, Linda K. 1976. “The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment—American Perspective.” American Quarterly 28(Summer): 187–205.
Kerber, Linda K. 1980. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Kerber, Linda K. 1985. “The Republican Ideology of the Revolutionary Generation.” American Quarterly 37(Autumn):474–495.
Kerber, Linda K. 1988. “Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: The Rhetoric of Women’s History.” Journal of American History 75(June):9–39.
Kerber, Linda K., Cott, Nancy F., Gross, Robert, Hunt, Lynn, Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll, and Stansell, Christine M.. 1989. “Beyond Roles, Beyond Spheres: Thinking about Gender in the Early Republic.” William and Mary Quarterly 41(July):565–581.
Key, V. O., Jr. 1949. Southern Politics in State and Nation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Key, V. O., 1955. “A Theory of Critical Elections.” Journal of Politics 17(February):3–18.
Key, V. O., 1959. “Secular Realignment and the Party System.” Journal of Politics 21(May):198–210.
Keyssar, Alexander. 2000. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books.
King, Gary. 1997. A Solution to the Ecological Inference Problem: Deconstructing Individual Behavior from Aggregate Data. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
King, Gary, Rosen, Ori, and Tanner, Martin. 1999. “Binomial-Beta Hierarchical Models for Ecological Inference.” Sociological Methods and Research 28:61–90.
King, Gary, Rosen, Ori, and Tanner, Martin, eds. 2004. Ecological Inference: New Methodological Strategies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Klein, Ethel. 1984. Gender Politics: From Consciousness to Mass Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kleppner, Paul. 1982a. Who Voted? The Dynamics of Electoral Turnout, 1840–1940. New York: Praeger.
Kleppner, Paul. 1982b. “Were Women to Blame? Female Suffrage and Voter Turnout.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 12(Spring):621–643.
Klinghoffer, Judith Apter, and Elkis, Lois. 1992. “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776–1807.” Journal of the Early Republic 12(Summer):159–193.
Kousser, J. Morgan. 1974. The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Kraditor, Aileen S. 1968. Up from the Pedestal: Selected Writings in the History of American Feminism. Chicago: Quadrangle Books.
Kraditor, Aileen S. 1981. The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890–1920, 2nd ed. New York: W. W. Norton.
Ladd, Everett C. 1997. “Media Framing of the Gender Gap.” In Women, Media, and Politics, ed. Norris, Pippa, 113–128. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ladd, Everett C., and Hadley, Charles D.. 1975. Transformation of the American Party System: Political Coalitions from the New Deal to the 1970’s. New York: W. W. Norton.
Lane, Robert E. 1959. Political Life: Why People Get Involved in Politics. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Lau, Olivia, Moore, Ryan T., and Kellerman, Michael. 2007. “eiPack: RxC Ecological Inference and Higher Dimension Data Management.” R News. 7:43–47.
Lawson, Steven F. 1999. Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944–1969. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Lazarsfeld, Paul R., Berelson, Bernard R., and Gaudet, Hazel. 1948. The People’s Choice. New York: Columbia University Press.
Lebsock, Suzanne. 1993. “Woman Suffrage and White Supremacy: A Virginia Case Study.” In Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism, eds. Hewitt, Nancy A. and Lebsock, Suzanne, 61–100. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Lemons, J. Stanley. 1973. The Woman Citizen: Social Feminism in the 1920s. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
Lerner, Gerda. 1969. “The Lady and the Mill Girl: Changes in the Status of Women in the Age of Jackson.” Midcontinent American Studies Journal 10(Spring):5–15.
Leuchtenburg, William E. 1971. “Election of 1936.” In History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, eds. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. and Israel, Fred L., 2808–2914. New York: Chelsea House Publishers in Association with McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Lewinson, Paul. 1932. Race, Class, and Party: A History of Negro Suffrage and White Politics in the South. London: Oxford University Press.
Lewis, Jan. 1995. “‘Of Every Age Sex & Condition’: The Representation of Women in the Constitution.” Journal of the Early Republic 15(Fall):359–387.
Lichtman, Allan J. 1979. Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Lippman, Walter. 1928. “Lady Politicians: How the Old-Fashioned Illusion That Women Would Redeem Politics Has Been Destroyed.” Vanity Fair 29(January):43, 104.
Lubell, Samuel. 1952. The Future of American Politics. New York: Harper & Brothers.
MacKay, Kenneth Campbell. 1947. The Progressive Movement of 1924. New York: Columbia University Press.
MacRae, Duncan Jr., and Meldrum, James A.. 1960. “Critical Elections in Illinois: 1888–1958.” American Political Science Review 54(September):669–683.
Mannheim, Karl. 1952. “The Problem of Generations.” In Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, ed. Kecskemeti, Paul, 276–322. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Mansbridge, Jane J. 1985. “Myth and Reality: The ERA and the Gender Gap in the 1980 Election.” Public Opinion Quarterly 49:164–178.
Marilley, Suzanne M. 1996. Woman Suffrage and the Origins of Liberal Feminism in the United States, 1820–1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Martin, Andrew D., Quinn, Kevin M., and Park, Jong Hee. 2011. “MCMCpack: Markov Chain Monte Carlo in R.” Journal of Statistical Software. 42(9):1–21.
Martin, Anne. 1925. “Feminists and Future Political Action.” The Nation 120(February 18):185–186.
Matland, Richard E., and Murray, Gregg R.. 2012. “An Experimental Test of Mobilization Effects in a Latino Community.” Political Research Quarterly 65(1):192–205.
Matthews, Glenna. 1992. The Rise of Public Woman: Woman’s Power and Woman’s Place in the United States, 1630–1970. New York: Oxford University Press.
McConnaughy, Corrine M. 2013. The Woman Suffrage Movement in America: A Reassessment. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCormick, Anne O’Hare. 1928. “Enter Woman, The New Boss of Politics.” The New York Times Magazine October 21:3 and 22.
McCoy, Donald R. 1971. “Election of 1920.” In History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, eds. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. and Israel, Fred L., 2348–2455. New York: Chelsea House Publishers in Association with McGraw-Hill Book Co.
McDonagh, Eileen L., and Price, H. Douglas. 1985. “Woman Suffrage in the Progressive Era: Patterns of Opposition and Support in Referenda Voting, 1910–1918” American Political Science Review 79(2):415–435.
McGerr, Michael. 1990. “Political Style and Women’s Power, 1830–1930.” The Journal of American History 77(December):864–885.
McMichael, Lawrence G., and Trilling, Richard J.. 1980. “The Structure and Meaning of Critical Realignment: The Case of Pennsylvania, 1928–1932.” In Realignment in American Politics: Toward a Theory, eds. Campbell, Bruce A. and Trilling, Richard J., 21–51. Austin: University of Texas Press.
McPhee, William N., and Ferguson, Jack. 1962. “Political Immunization.” In Public Opinion and Congressional Elections, eds. McPhee, William N. and Glaser, William A., 123–154. New York: Free Press of Glencoe.
Merriam, Charles E. 1929. Chicago: A More Intimate View of Urban Politics. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Merriam, Charles E., and Gosnell, Harold F.. 1924. Non-voting: Causes and Methods of Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mickey, Robert. 2015. Paths Out of Dixie: The Democratization of Authoritarian Enclaves in America’s Deep South, 1944–1972. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Miller, Warren E., and Shanks, J. Merrill. 1996. The New American Voter. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Minor v. Happersett. 1874. 88 U.S. 162.
Monoson, S. Sara. 1990. “The Lady and the Tiger: Women’s Electoral Activism in New York City before Suffrage.” Journal of Women’s History 2(Fall):100–135.
Nardulli, Peter F. 1995. “The Concept of Critical Realignment, Electoral Behavior, and Political Change.” American Political Science Review 89(March):10–22.
Nardulli, Peter F. 2005. Popular Efficacy in the Democratic Era: A Re-examination of Electoral Accountability in the U.S., 1828–2000. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Neal, R. M. 2003. “Slice sampling.” (with discussion). Annals of Statistics 31: 705–767.
Nichols, Carole. 1983. “Votes and More for Women: Suffrage and After in Connecticut.” Women & History 5:1–92.
Nickerson, David W. 2008. “Is Voting Contagious? Evidence from Two Field Experiments.” American Political Science Review 102(February):49–57.
Niemi, Richard G., Powell, G. Bingham, Jr., Stanley, Harold W., and Evans, C. Lawrence. 1985. “Testing the Converse Partisanship Model with New Electorates.” Comparative Political Studies 18(October):300–322.
Niemi, Richard G., Stanley, Harold W., and Evans, C. Lawrence. 1984. “Age and Turnout among the Newly Enfranchised: Life Cycle versus Experience Effects.” European Journal of Political Research. 12:371–386.
Niemi, Richard G., and Weisberg, Herbert F.. 1984. “What Determines Turnout?” In Controversies in Voting Behavior, 2nd ed. eds. Niemi, Richard G. and Weisberg, Herbert F., 23–33. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly.
Niven, David. 2001. “The Limits of Mobilization: Turnout Evidence from State House Primaries.” Political Behavior 23(December):335–349.
Niven, David. 2004. “The Mobilization Solution? Face-to-Face Contact and Voter Turnout in a Municipal Election.” Journal of Politics 66(August):868–884.
Norrander, Barbara. 1999. “The Evolution of the Gender Gap.” Public Opinion Quarterly 63(Winter):566–576.
Ogburn, William F., and Goltra, Inez. 1919. “How Women Vote: A Study of An Election in Portland, Oregon.” Political Science Quarterly 34:413–433.
Ogden, Frederic D. 1958. The Poll Tax in the South. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Ogg, Frederic A., and Ray, R. Orman. 1932. Essentials of American Government. New York: The Century Co.
O’Neill, William L. 1971. Everyone Was Brave: A History of Feminism in America. New York: Quadrangle.
Orren, Karen, and Skowronek, Stephen. 2004. The Search for American Political Development. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Pateman, Carole. 1980. “Women, Nature, and the Suffrage.” Ethics 90(July): 564–575.
Pateman, Carole. 1994. “Three Questions about Womanhood Suffrage.” In Suffrage and Beyond: International Feminist Perspectives, eds. Daley, Caroline and Nolan, Melanie, 331–348. New York: New York University Press.
Patterson, Samuel C., and Caldeira, Gregory. 1983. “Getting Out the Vote: Participation in Gubernatorial Elections.” American Political Science Review 77(September):675–689.
Peel, Roy V. and Donnelly, Thomas C.. 1931. The 1928 Campaign: An Analysis. New York: Richard R. Smith.
Plummer, Martyn, Best, Nicky, Cowles, Kate, and Vines, Karen. 2006. “CODA: Convergence Diagnosis and Output Analysis for MCMC.” R News 6(1):7–11.
Plutzer, Eric. 2002. “Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood.” American Political Science Review 96(March):41–56.
Pollock, James K. 1939. Voting Behavior. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Powell, G. Bingham, Jr. 1986. “American Voter Turnout in Comparative Perspective.” American Political Science Review 80(March):17–43.
Prindle, David F. 1979. “Voter Turnout, Critical Elections, and the New Deal Realignment.” Social Science History III(Winter):144–170.
Raftery, Adrian E. 1995. “Bayesian Model Selection in Social Research.” Sociological Methodology 24:111–163.
Rice, Stuart A., and Willey, Malcolm M.. 1924. “American Women’s Ineffective Use of the Vote.” Current History 20(July):641–647.
Robert, Christian A., and Casella, George. 2004. Monte Carlo Statistical Methods. 2nd ed. New York: Springer.
Robinson, William S. 1950. “Ecological Correlation and the Behavior of Individuals.” American Sociological Review 15:351–357.
Rogers, Edith Nourse. 1930. “Women’s New Place in Politics.” Nation’s Business 18:39–41, 124.
Roosevelt, Eleanor. 1940. “Women in Politics” (Second of three articles). Good Housekeeping 110 (March):45ff.
Rosen, Ori, Jiang, Wenxin, King, Gary, and Tanner, Martin A.. 2001. “Bayesian and Frequentist Inference for Ecological Inference: The R × C Case.” Statistica Neerlandica 55(2):134–156.
Rosenstone, Steven J., Behr, Roy L., and Lazarus, Edward H.. 1996. Third Parties in America: Citizen Response to Major Party Failure., 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, Participation, and Democracy in America. New York: Macmillan.
Rossi, Alice S., ed. 1973. The Feminist Papers: From Adams to de Beauvoir. New York: Columbia University Press.
Rubenstein, Sondra Miller. 1994. Surveying Public Opinion. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Rusk, Jerold G. 1970. “The Effect of the Australian Ballot Reform on Split Ticket Voting.” American Political Science Review 64(December):1220–1238.
Rusk, Jerold G. 1974. “Comment: The American Electoral Universe: Speculation and Evidence.” American Political Science Review 68(September):1028–1049.
Russell, Charles Edward. 1924. “Is Woman-Suffrage a Failure?” The Century Magazine 35:724–730.
Rymph, Catherine E. 2006. Republican Women: Feminism and Conservatism from Suffrage through the Rise of the New Right. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Sainsbury, Diane. 1999. “Beyond the ‘Great Divide’: Women in Partisan Politics before and after the Federal Suffrage Amendment.” Women & Politics 20(2):59–80.
Salisbury, Robert H., and MacKuen, Michael. 1981. “On the Study of Party Realignment.” Journal of Politics 43:523–530.
Sarvasy, Wendy. 1992. “Beyond the Difference versus Equality Policy Debate: Postsuffrage Feminism, Citizenship, and the Quest for a Feminist Welfare State.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17(Winter):329–362.
Scammon, Richard M., ed. 1965. America at the Polls: A Handbook of Presidential Election Statistics, 1920–1964. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Schantz, Harvey L. 1992. “The Erosion of Sectionalism in Presidential Elections.” Polity 24(Spring):355–377.
Schattschneider, E. E. 1960. The Semi-sovereign People. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Schuyler, Lorraine Gates. 2006. The Weight of Their Votes: Southern Women and Political Leverage in the 1920s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Scott, Anne Firor. 1964. “After Suffrage: Southern Women in the Twenties.” Journal of Southern History 30:298–318.
Scott, Anne Firor. 1972. The Southern Lady: From Pedestal to Politics, 1830–1930. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Shapiro, Robert Y., and Mahajan, Harpreet. 1986. “Gender Differences in Policy Preferences: A Summary of Trends from the 1960s to the 1980s.” Public Opinion Quarterly 50:42–61.
Shively, W. Phillip. 1971–1972. “A Reinterpretation of the New Deal Realignment.” Public Opinion Quarterly 35(Winter):621–624.
Siegel, Reva B. 2002. “She the People: The Nineteenth Amendment, Sex Equality, Federalism, and the Family.” Harvard Law Review 115(February):947–1046.
Silva, Ruth C. 1962. Rum, Religion, and Votes: 1928 Re-examined. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Skocpol, Theda. 1992. Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Skocpol, Theda. 1994. “The Origins of Social Policy in the United States: A Polity-Centered Analysis.” In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Dodd, Lawrence C. and Jillson, Calvin, 182–206. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Skocpol, Theda. 2003. Civic Engagement in American Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Smith, Jean M. 1980. “The Voting Women of San Diego, 1920.” The Journal of San Diego History 26(Spring):133–154.
Smith, Rogers M. 1997. Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Spain, Daphne. 2001. How Women Saved the City. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Stoker, Laura, and Jennings, M. Kent. 2008. “Of Time and Partisan Polarization.” American Journal of Political Science 52(July):619–635.
Stucker, John J. 1976. “Women’s Political Role.” Current History 70(May): 211–214.
Sumner, Helen. 1909. Equal Suffrage: The Results of an Investigation in Colorado made for the Collegiate Equal Suffrage League of New York State. New York: Harper and Brothers.
Sundquist, James L. 1983. Dynamics of the Party System: Alignment and Realignment in the United States, rev. ed. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
Swisher, Idella Gwatkin. 1933. “Election Statistics in the United States.” American Political Science Review 27(June):422–432.
Tarbell, Ida M. 1924. “Is Woman’s Suffrage a Failure?” Good Housekeeping October:18.
Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn. 1978. “Discrimination against Afro-American Women in the Woman’s Movement, 1830–1920.” In The Afro-American Woman: Struggles and Images, eds. Harley, Sharon and Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn, 17–27. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press.
Terborg-Penn, Rosalyn. 1998. African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Thelen, David P. 1976. Robert M. La Follette and the Insurgent Spirit. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company.
Tingsten, Herbert. 1937. Political Behavior. Totowa, NJ: Bedminster.
Titus, Charles H. 1976. Voting Behavior in the United States: A Statistical Study. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Toombs, Elizabeth O. 1929. “Politicians, Take Notice.” Good Housekeeping March:14–15.
Tyler, Pamela. 1996. Silk Stockings & Ballot Boxes: Women & Politics in New Orleans, 1920–1963. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Unger, Nancy C. 2000. Fighting Bob LaFollette: The Righteous Reformer. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
US Census. 1912. Thirteenth Census of the United States: 1910. Population. Volumes I, II, and III. Washington, DC: United States Printing Office.
US Census. 1922. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920. Population. Volumes I, II, and III. Washington, DC: United States Printing Office.
US Census. 1932. Fifteenth Census of the United States: 1930. Population. Volumes I, II, and III. Washington, DC: United States Printing Office.
US Census. 1982. Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics, P-20. Voting and Registration in the Election of 1980. Washington, DC: United States Printing Office.
US Census. 1998. Current Population Reports, Population Characteristics, P20-504. Voting and Registration in the Election of 1996. Washington, DC: United States Printing Office.
Valelly, Richard M. 2004. The Two Reconstructions: The Struggle for Black Enfranchisement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wakefield, Jon. 2004. “Ecological inference for 2 × 2 tables (with discussion).” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 167:385–445.
Wanat, John. 1979. “The Application of Non-Analytic, Most Possible Estimation Technique: The Relative Impact of Mobilization and Conversion of Votes in the New Deal.” Political Methodology 6(3):357–374.
Weed, Clyde P. 1994. The Nemesis of Reform: The Republican Party during the New Deal. New York: Columbia University Press.
Wells, Marguerite M. 1929. “Some Effects of Woman Suffrage.” The Annals of the American Academy 143:207–216.
Welter, Barbara. 1966. “The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820–1860.” American Quarterly 18(Summer):151–174.
Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill. 1993. New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wheeler, Marjorie Spruill. 1995. One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement. Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press.
Wilkerson-Freeman, Sarah. 2002. “The Second Battle for Woman Suffrage: Alabama White Women, the Poll Tax, and V.O. Key’s Master Narrative of Southern Politics.” Journal of Southern History 68(May):333–374.
Wilkerson-Freeman, Sarah. 2003. “Stealth in the Political Arsenal of Southern Women: A Retrospective for the Millennium.” In Southern Women at the Millennium: A Historical Perspective, eds. Melissa Walker, Jeanette R. Dunn, and Joe P. Dunn, 42–82. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.
Willey, Malcolm, M., and Rice, Stuart A.. 1924. “A Sex Cleavage in the Presidential Election of 1920.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 19: 519–520.
Wirls, Daniel. 1986. “Reinterpreting the Gender Gap.” Public Opinion Quarterly 50(Autumn):316–330.
Wolbrecht, Christina. 2000. The Politics of Women’s Rights: Parties, Positions, and Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Wolfinger, Raymond E., and Rosenstone, Steven J.. 1980. Who Votes? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Wong, Janelle S. 2000. “The Effects of Age and Political Exposure on the Development of Party Identification among Asian American and Latino Immigrants in the United States.” Political Behavior 22(4):341–371.
Young, Louise M. 1975. “Women’s Place in American Politics: The Historical Perspective.” Journal of Politics (200 Years of the Republic in Retrospect: A Special Bicentennial Issue) 38(August):295–335.
Young, Louise M. 1989. In the Public Interest: The League of Women Voters, 1920–1970. New York: Greenwood Press.
