Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T04:19:30.322Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

39 - Working Memory Training

Meta-Analyses and Clinical Implications

from Part VI - Language Disorders, Interventions, and Instruction

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 July 2022

By
Domenico Tullo  and
Susanne M. Jaeggi
Edited by
John W. Schwieter  and
Zhisheng (Edward) Wen
John W. Schwieter
Affiliation:
Wilfrid Laurier University
Zhisheng (Edward) Wen
Affiliation:
Hong Kong Shue Yan University
Get access

Summary

Working memory (WM) training explores whether and how repeated practice on working memory tasks might generalize to a variety of outcome measures. Although this field of research is part of the growing literature in cognitive sciences, it has spawned contentious debates. The controversies are largely driven by inconsistent findings and commercial interests, and as a result, numerous meta-analyses and systematic reviews have focused on the validity of WM training. Similarly, there is an inconsistency in the conclusions drawn by these meta-analyses; while there seems to be an agreement about the generalization to proximal cognitive measures; there is a discrepancy in the interpretation of any translational outcomes (e.g., behavioral, clinical, and academic). In this chapter, we review the collection of meta-analyses with a particular focus on children diagnosed with ADHD and other developmental disabilities, and recommend that the field should focus on improving our understanding of the mechanistic and effectiveness properties of WM training, which might result in the development of valuable alternative and/or supplemental approaches, when traditional interventions might fall short, especially for individuals typically underrepresented and underserved.

Keywords

working memoryexecutive functionscognitive trainingclinical populationsmoderation
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Working Memory and Language , pp. 881 - 906
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackermann, S., Halfon, O., Fornari, E., Urben, S., & Bader, M. (2018). Cognitive Working Memory Training (CWMT) in adolescents suffering from Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A controlled trial taking into account concomitant medication effects. Psychiatry Research, 269, 79–85.Google Scholar
Aksayli, N. D., Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2019). The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 27, 229–243.Google Scholar
Antshel, K. M., Zhang-James, Y., & Faraone, S. V. (2013). The comorbidity of ADHD and Autism Spectrum Disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 13(10), 1117–1128.Google Scholar
Au, J., Gibson, B. C., Bunarjo, K., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2020). Quantifying the difference between active and passive control groups in cognitive interventions using two meta-analytical approaches. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 4(2), 192–210.Google Scholar
Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(2), 366–377.Google Scholar
Bailey, D., Duncan, G. J., Odgers, C. L., & Yu, W. (2017). Persistence and fadeout in the impacts of child and adolescent interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(1), 7–39.Google Scholar
Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002). When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 612–637.Google Scholar
Barriga, A. Q., Doran, J. W., Newell, S. B., Morrison, E. M., Barbetti, V., & Robbins, B. D. (2002). Relationships between problem behaviors and academic achievement in adolescents: The unique role of attention problems. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10(4), 233–240.Google Scholar
Bavelier, D., Bediou, B., & Green, C. S. (2018). Expertise and generalization: Lessons from action video games. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 20, 169–173.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Spencer, T., Wilens, T. E., Macpherson, H. A., & Faraone, S. V. (2008). Stimulant therapy and risk for subsequent substance use disorders in male adults with ADHD: A naturalistic controlled 10-year follow-up study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(5), 597–603.Google Scholar
Cantwell, D. P., & Baker, L. (1991). Association between Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(2), 88–95.Google Scholar
Cao, Y., Huang, T., Huang, J., Xie, X., & Wang, Y. (2020). Effects and moderators of computer-based training on children’s executive functions: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.Google Scholar
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380.Google Scholar
Chacko, A., Bedard, A.-C. V., Marks, D., Gopalan, G., Feirsen, N., Uderman, J., Chimiklis, A., Heber, E., Cornwell, M., Anderson, L., Zwilling, A., & Ramon, M. (2018). Sequenced neurocognitive and behavioral parent training for the treatment of ADHD in school-age children. Child Neuropsychology, 24(4), 427–450.Google Scholar
Chacko, A., Feirsen, N., Bedard, A.-C., Marks, D., Uderman, J. Z., & Chimiklis, A. (2013). Cogmed working memory training for youth with ADHD: A closer examination of efficacy utilizing evidence-based criteria. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42(6), 769–783.Google Scholar
Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., Felicetti, T., Laatsch, L., Harley, J. P., Bergquist, T., Azulay, J., Cantor, J., & Ashman, T. (2011). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: Updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coghill, D. (2019). Debate: Are stimulant medications for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder effective in the long term? (For). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(10), 938–939.Google Scholar
Commissioner, O. of the. (2020, June 17). FDA Permits Marketing of First Game-Based Digital Therapeutic to Improve Attention Function in Children with ADHD. FDA. www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-permits-marketing-first-game-based-digital-therapeutic-improve-attention-function-children-adhdGoogle Scholar
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003). Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(12), 547–552.Google Scholar
Cornoldi, C., Carretti, B., Drusi, S., & Tencati, C. (2015). Improving problem solving in primary school students: The effect of a training programme focusing on metacognition and working memory. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(3), 424–439.Google Scholar
Cortese, S., Ferrin, M., Brandeis, D., Buitelaar, J., Daley, D., Dittmann, R. W., Holtmann, M., Santosh, P., Stevenson, J., Stringaris, A., Zuddas, A., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2015). Cognitive training for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Meta-analysis of clinical and neuropsychological outcomes from randomized controlled trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54(3), 164–174.Google Scholar
Cowan, N., Elliott, E. M., Scott Saults, J., Morey, C. C., Mattox, S., Hismjatullina, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005). On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes. Cognitive Psychology, 51(1), 42–100.Google Scholar
Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Ghandour, R. M., Holbrook, J. R., Kogan, M. D., & Blumberg, S. J. (2018). Prevalence of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis and associated treatment among U.S. children and adolescents, 2016. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 199–212.Google Scholar
Danielsson, H., Zottarel, V., Palmqvist, L., & Lanfranchi, S. (2015). The effectiveness of working memory training with individuals with intellectual disabilities: A meta-analytic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1230.Google Scholar
Davis, N. O., Bower, J., & Kollins, S. H. (2018). Proof-of-concept study of an at-home, engaging, digital intervention for pediatric ADHD. PLoS ONE, 13(1), e0189749.Google Scholar
de Vries, M., Prins, P. J. M., Schmand, B. A., & Geurts, H. M. (2015). Working memory and cognitive flexibility-training for children with an autism spectrum disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(5), 566–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deveau, J., Jaeggi, S. M., Zordan, V., Phung, C., & Seitz, A. R. (2015). How to build better memory training games. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8.Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168.Google Scholar
DuPaul, G. J., Gormley, M. J., & Laracy, S. D. (2013). Comorbidity of LD and ADHD: Implications of DSM-5 for assessment and treatment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(1), 43–51.Google Scholar
Engle, R. W., Kane, M. J., & Tuholski, S. W. (1999). Individual differences in working memory capacity and what they tell us about controlled attention, general fluid intelligence, and functions of the prefrontal cortex. In Miyake, A. & Shah, P. (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fabiano, G. A., Pelham, W. E. Jr., Coles, E. K., Gnagy, E. M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., & O’Connor, B. C. (2009). A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(2), 129–140.Google Scholar
Farcas, S., & Szamosközi, I. (2016). The effects of working memory trainings with game elements for children with ADHD. A meta-analytic review. Transylvanian Journal of Psychology, 1.Google Scholar
Forster, S., Robertson, D. J., Jennings, A., Asherson, P., & Lavie, N. (2014). Plugging the attention deficit: Perceptual load counters increased distraction in ADHD. Neuropsychology, 28(1), 91.Google Scholar
Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., Seethaler, P. M., & Barnes, M. A. (2020). Addressing the role of working memory in mathematical word-problem solving when designing intervention for struggling learners. ZDM, 52(1), 87–96.Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019). Working memory training involves learning new skills. Journal of Memory and Language, 105, 19–42.Google Scholar
Gau, S. S.-F., Chen, S.-J., Chou, W.-J., Cheng, H., Tang, C.-S., Chang, H.-L., Tzang, R.-F., Wu, Y.-Y., Huang, Y.-F., Chou, M.-C., Liang, H.-Y., Hsu, Y.-C., Lu, H.-H., & Huang, Y.-S. (2008). National survey of adherence, efficacy, and side effects of methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Taiwan. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69(1), 131–140.Google Scholar
Gibson, B. S., Gondoli, D. M., Johnson, A. C., Steeger, C. M., & Morrissey, R. A. (2012). The future promise of Cogmed working memory training. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(3), 214–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, C. S., Bavelier, D., Kramer, A. F., Vinogradov, S., Ansorge, U., Ball, K. K., Bingel, U., Chein, J. M., Colzato, L. S., Edwards, J. D., Facoetti, A., Gazzaley, A., Gathercole, S. E., Ghisletta, P., Gori, S., Granic, I., Hillman, C. H., Hommel, B., Jaeggi, S. M.,…Witt, C. M. (2019). Improving methodological standards in behavioral interventions for cognitive enhancement. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 3(1), 2–29.Google Scholar
Hartshorne, J. K., & Germine, L. T. (2015). When does cognitive functioning peak? The asynchronous rise and fall of different cognitive abilities across the life span. Psychological Science, 26(4), 433–443.Google Scholar
Hou, J., Jiang, T., Fu, J., Su, B., Wu, H., Sun, R., & Zhang, T. (2020). The long-term efficacy of working memory training in healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 22 randomized controlled trials. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 75(8), e174–e188.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(19), 6829–6833.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(25), 10081–10086.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Parlett-Pelleriti, C. M., Moon, S. M., Evans, M., Kritzmacher, A., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2020). Investigating the effects of spacing on working memory training outcome: A randomized controlled multi-site trial in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 75(6).Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2014). The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Memory & Cognition, 42(3), 464–480.Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Pahor, A., & Seitz, A. R. (2020, Sept. 24). Does “Brain Training” actually work? Scientific American. www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-brain-training-actually-work.Google Scholar
Jensen, P. S., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., Greenhill, L. L., Conners, C. K., Arnold, L. E., Abikoff, H. B., Elliott, G., Hechtman, L., Hoza, B., March, J. S., Newcorn, J. H., Severe, J. B., Vitiello, B., Wells, K., & Wigal, T. (2001). Findings from the NIMH Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (MTA): Implications and applications for primary care providers. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(1), 60–73.Google Scholar
Jones, M. R., Katz, B., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Shah, P. (2020). Exploring n-back cognitive training for children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24(5), doi: 10.1177/1087054718779230.Google Scholar
Kambeitz-Ilankovic, L., Betz, L. T., Dominke, C., Haas, S. S., Subramaniam, K., Fisher, M., Vinogradov, S., Koutsouleris, N., & Kambeitz, J. (2019). Multi-outcome meta-analysis (MOMA) of cognitive remediation in schizophrenia: Revisiting the relevance of human coaching and elucidating interplay between multiple outcomes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 107, 828–845.Google Scholar
Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18(7), 614–621.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T. W., & Engle, R. W. (2004). The generality of working memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuospatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(2), 189–217.Google Scholar
Karbach, J., Könen, T., & Spengler, M. (2017). Who benefits the most? Individual differences in the transfer of executive control training across the lifespan. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(4), 394–405.Google Scholar
Karbach, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work: A meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Psychological Science, 25(11), 2027–2037.Google Scholar
Kassai, R., Futo, J., Demetrovics, Z., & Takacs, Z. K. (2019). A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence on the near- and far-transfer effects among children’s executive function skills. Psychological Bulletin, 145(2), 165–188.Google Scholar
Katz, B., Jaeggi, S., Buschkuehl, M., Stegman, A., & Shah, P. (2014). Differential effect of motivational features on training improvements in school-based cognitive training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8.Google Scholar
Katz, B., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2018). The effect of monetary compensation on cognitive training outcomes. Learning and Motivation, 63, 77–90.Google Scholar
Katz, B., Jones, M. R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2016). Individual differences and motivational effects. In Cognitive training: An overview of features and applications (pp. 157–166). Springer International Publishing.Google Scholar
Kenworthy, L., Yerys, B. E., Anthony, L. G., & Wallace, G. L. (2008). Understanding executive control in Autism Spectrum Disorders in the lab and in the real world. Neuropsychology Review, 18(4), 320–338.Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Macoun, S., MacSween, J., Pei, J., & Hutchison, M. (2017). Attention and working memory training: A feasibility study in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 6(2), 120–137.Google Scholar
Klingberg, T. (2010). Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(7), 317–324.Google Scholar
Knight, L. A., Rooney, M., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2008). Psychosocial treatments for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 10(5), 412–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Austin, K. E., Schaefer, H. S., Holland, E., Aduen, P. A., Wells, E. L., Soto, E. F., Irwin, L. N., Schatschneider, C., & Lonigan, C. J. (2018). Can working memory training work for ADHD? Development of central executive training and comparison with behavioral parent training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86(12), 964–979.Google Scholar
Kollins, S. H., DeLoss, D. J., Cañadas, E., Lutz, J., Findling, R. L., Keefe, R. S. E., Epstein, J. N., Cutler, A. J., & Faraone, S. V. (2020). A novel digital intervention for actively reducing severity of paediatric ADHD (STARS-ADHD): A randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Digital Health, 2(4), e168–e178.Google Scholar
Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253.Google Scholar
Lambez, B., Harwood-Gross, A., Golumbic, E. Z., & Rassovsky, Y. (2020). Non-pharmacological interventions for cognitive difficulties in ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 120, 40–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loosli, S. V., Buschkuehl, M., Perrig, W. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2012). Working memory training improves reading processes in typically developing children. Child Neuropsychology, 18(1), 62–78.Google Scholar
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270–291.Google Scholar
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2015). There is no convincing evidence that working memory training is effective: A reply to Au et al. (2014) and Karbach and Verhaeghen (2014). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(1), 324–330.Google Scholar
Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 11(4), 512–534.Google Scholar
Mohammed, S., Flores, L., Deveau, J., Hoffing, R. C., Phung, C., Parlett, C. M., Sheehan, E., Lee, D., Au, J., Buschkuehl, M., Zordan, V., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2017). The benefits and challenges of implementing motivational features to boost cognitive training outcome. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement: Towards the Integration of Theory and Practice, 1(4), 491–507.Google Scholar
Molina, B. S. G., Hinshaw, S. P., Eugene Arnold, L., Swanson, J. M., Pelham, W. E., Hechtman, L., Hoza, B., Epstein, J. N., Wigal, T., Abikoff, H. B., Greenhill, L. L., Jensen, P. S., Wells, K. C., Vitiello, B., Gibbons, R. D., Howard, A., Houck, P. R., Hur, K., Lu, B.,…MTA Cooperative Group. (2013). Adolescent substance use in the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (MTA) as a function of childhood ADHD, random assignment to childhood treatments, and subsequent medication. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(3), 250–263.Google Scholar
Nemmi, F., Helander, E., Helenius, O., Almeida, R., Hassler, M., Räsänen, P., & Klingberg, T. (2016). Behavior and neuroimaging at baseline predict individual response to combined mathematical and working memory training in children. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 43–51.Google Scholar
Passolunghi, M. C., Marzocchi, G. M., & Fiorillo, F. (2005). Selective effect of inhibition of literal or numerical irrelevant information in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Arithmetic Learning Disorder (ALD). Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(3), 731–753.Google Scholar
Peijnenborgh, J. C., Hurks, P. M., Aldenkamp, A. P., Vles, J. S., & Hendriksen, J. G. (2016). Efficacy of working memory training in children and adolescents with learning disabilities: A review study and meta-analysis. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 26(5–6), 645–672.Google Scholar
Peng, P., & Miller, A. C. (2016). Doesattention training work? A selective meta-analysis to explore the effects of attention training and moderators. Learning and Individual Differences, 45, 77–87.Google Scholar
Peng, P., Namkung, J., Barnes, M., & Sun, C. (2016). A meta-analysis of mathematics and working memory: Moderating effects of working memory domain, type of mathematics skill, and sample characteristics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(4), 455.Google Scholar
Pergher, V., Shalchy, M. A., Pahor, A., Van Hulle, M. M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2019). Divergent research methods limit understanding of working memory training. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1–21.Google Scholar
Randall, L., & Tyldesley, K. (2016). Evaluating the impact of working memory training programmes on children: A systematic review. Educational and Child Psychology, 33(1), 34–50.Google Scholar
Rapport, M. D., Orban, S. A., Kofler, M. J., & Friedman, L. M. (2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1237–1252.Google Scholar
Rebok, G. W., Langbaum, J. B. S., Jones, R. N., Gross, A. L., Parisi, J. M., Spira, A. P., Kueider, A. M., Petras, H., & Brandt, J. (2013). Memory training in the ACTIVE study: How much is needed and who benefits? Journal of Aging and Health, 25(8 suppl.), 21S–42S.Google Scholar
Reser, M. P., Slikboer, R., & Rossell, S. L. (2019). A systematic review of factors that influence the efficacy of cognitive remediation therapy in schizophrenia. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 53(7), 624–641.Google Scholar
Robert, P., Manera, V., Derreumaux, A., Montesino, M. F. Y., Leone, E., Fabre, R., & Bourgeois, J. (2020). Efficacy of a web app for cognitive training (MeMo) regarding cognitive and behavioral performance in people with neurocognitive disorders: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(3), e17167. https://doi.org/10.2196/17167Google Scholar
Sala, G., Aksayli, N. D., Tatlidil, K. S., Tatsumi, T., Gondo, Y., & Gobet, F. (2019). Near and far transfer in cognitive training: A second-order meta-analysis. Collabra: Psychology, 5(18). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.203Google Scholar
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2017). Working memory training in typically developing children: A meta-analysis of the available evidence. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 671.Google Scholar
Salmi, J., Soveri, A., Salmela, V., Alho, K., Leppämäki, S., Tani, P., Koski, A., Jaeggi, S. M., & Laine, M. (2020). Working memory training restores aberrant brain activity in adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 41(17), 4876–4891.Google Scholar
Sandeep, S., Shelton, C. R., Pahor, A., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020). Application of machine learning models for tracking participant skills in cognitive training. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saxena, S., Thornicroft, G., Knapp, M., & Whiteford, H. (2007). Resources for mental health: Scarcity, inequity, and inefficiency. Lancet, 370(9590), 878–889.Google Scholar
Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015). Does working memory training transfer? A meta-analysis including training conditions as moderators. Educational Psychologist, 50(2), 138–166.Google Scholar
Scionti, N., Cavallero, M., Zogmaister, C., & Marzocchi, G. M. (2020). Is cognitive training effective for improving executive functions in preschoolers? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 10.Google Scholar
Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S., & Jonides, J. (2012). Cognitive training for ADHD: The importance of individual differences. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(3), 204–205.Google Scholar
Shah, P., & Miyake, A. (1999). Models of working memory: An introduction. In Miyake, A. & Shah, P. (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanism of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 1–26). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Cogmed working memory training: Does the evidence support the claims? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(3), 185–193.Google Scholar
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2010). Does working memory training generalize? Psychologica Belgica, 50(3–4), 245.Google Scholar
Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Is working memory training effective? Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 628–654.Google Scholar
Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016). Do “Brain-Training” programs work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(3), 103–186.Google Scholar
Söderqvist, S., Nutley, S. B., Ottersen, J., Grill, K. M., & Klingberg, T. (2012). Computerized training of non-verbal reasoning and working memory in children with intellectual disability. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2002). Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD: A dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behavioural Brain Research, 130(1), 29–36.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Brandeis, D., Cortese, S., Daley, D., Ferrin, M., Holtmann, M., Stevenson, J., Danckaerts, M., van der Oord, S., Döpfner, M., Dittmann, R. W., Simonoff, E., Zuddas, A., Banaschewski, T., Buitelaar, J., Coghill, D., Hollis, C., Konofal, E., Lecendreux, M.,…Sergeant, J. (2013). Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: Systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(3), 275–289.Google Scholar
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Brandeis, D., Holtmann, M., & Cortese, S. (2014). Computer-based cognitive training for ADHD: A review of current evidence. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23(4), 807–824.Google Scholar
Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(4), 1077–1096.Google Scholar
Spencer-Smith, M., & Klingberg, T. (2015). Benefits of a working memory training program for inattention in daily life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 10(3).Google Scholar
Stepankova, H., Lukavsky, J., Buschkuehl, M., Kopecek, M., Ripova, D., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014). Dose-response relationship of working memory training and improvements in fluid intelligence: A randomized controlled study in old adults. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1049–1059.Google Scholar
Swanson, J. M. (2019). Debate: Are stimulant medications for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder effective in the long term? (Against). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(10), 936–938.Google Scholar
Takacs, Z. K., & Kassai, R. (2019). The efficacy of different interventions to foster children’s executive function skills: A series of meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 145(7), 653–697.Google Scholar
Tsai, N., Buschkuehl, M., Kamarsu, S., Shah, P., Jonides, J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2018). (Un)Great expectations: The role of placebo effects in cognitive training. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 7(4), 564–573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tullo, D., Faubert, J., & Bertone, A. (2018). The characterization of attention resource capacity and its relationship with fluid reasoning intelligence: A multiple object tracking study. Intelligence, 69, 158–168.Google Scholar
Tullo, D., Guy, J., Faubert, J., & Bertone, A. (2018). Training with a three-dimensional multiple object-tracking (3D-MOT) paradigm improves attention in students with a neurodevelopmental condition: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Science, 21(6), e12670.Google Scholar
von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2014). Effects and mechanisms of working memory training: A review. Psychological Research, 78(6), 803–820.Google Scholar
Wang, C., Jaeggi, S. M., Yang, L., Zhang, T., He, X., Buschkuehl, M., & Zhang, Q. (2019). Narrowing the achievement gap in low-achieving children by targeted executive function training. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 87–95.Google Scholar
Wang, Z., Zhou, R., & Shah, P. (2014). Spaced cognitive training promotes training transfer. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8.Google Scholar
Wass, S. V., Scerif, G., & Johnson, M. H. (2012). Training attentional control and working memory: Is younger, better? Developmental Review, 32(4), 360–387.Google Scholar
Webb, S. L., Loh, V., Lampit, A., Bateman, J. E., & Birney, D. P. (2018). Meta-analysis of the effects of computerized cognitive training on executive functions: A cross-disciplinary taxonomy for classifying outcome cognitive factors. Neuropsychology Review, 28(2), 232–250.Google Scholar
Weicker, J., Villringer, A., & Thöne-Otto, A. (2016). Can impaired working memory functioning be improved by training? A meta-analysis with a special focus on brain injured patients. Neuropsychology, 30(2), 190.Google Scholar
Zhang, Q., Wang, C., Zhao, Q., Yang, L., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2019). The malleability of executive function in early childhood: Effects of schooling and targeted training. Developmental Science, 22(2), e12748.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×