Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-18T08:26:33.288Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

7 - Memory

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 May 2019

By
Henry L. Roediger  and
Jeremy K. Yamashiro
Edited by
Robert J. Sternberg  and
Wade E. Pickren
Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Cornell University, New York
Wade E. Pickren
Affiliation:
Ithaca College, New York
Get access

Summary

Although people have theorizing about memory for millennia, its careful experimental study began only in the late nineteenth century. Since then, its study has matured into one of the richest and most fully developed topics in psychological research. In this chapter, we present a historical survey of behavioral methods for studying human memory. We begin with the founders of two research traditions, Hermann Ebbinghaus and Frederic Bartlett. Their seminal research, based in laboratory and field methods, shaped how subsequent memory researchers conduct their science. We trace the evolution of memory research through several phases: the verbal learning tradition following Ebbinghaus, which was then broadened in the 1960s with studies of organization in memory and the information-processing tradition. We then continue with brief discussions of more contemporary research on working memory, episodic memory, autobiographical memory, and implicit memory, as well as social remembering. We also touch on the development of applied memory research in several realms. While early researchers attempted to find general laws governing all memory, 150 years of research have revealed no such laws. Rather, the tapestry of different but complementary research traditions has provided rich and continually growing insight into our understanding of human memory.

Keywords

memoryexperimental psychologymemory researchverbal learninginformation-processing traditionvarieties of memorycognitive revolution
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of the Intellectual History of Psychology , pp. 165 - 215
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T. (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory (Vol. 2, pp. 89–195). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control of short-term memory. Scientific American, 225(2), 82–90.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. (1996). The fractionation of working memory. PNAS, 93, 13468–13472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 829–839.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W., & Anderson, M. C. (2014). Memory. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 8 , 47–89.Google Scholar
Barnes, J. M., & Underwood, B. J. (1959). “Fate” of first-list associations in transfer theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 97–105.Google Scholar
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Basden, B. H., Basden, D. R., Bryner, S., & Thomas, R. L. III. (1997). A comparison of group and individual remembering: Does collaboration disrupt retrieval strategies? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1176–1191.Google Scholar
Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D. C. (2004). Cultural life scripts structure recall from autobiographical memory. Memory & Cognition, 32, 427–442.Google Scholar
Binet, A. (1900). La Suggestibilité. Paris: Schleicher.Google Scholar
Blaxton, T. A. (1989). Investigating dissociations among memory measures: Support for a transfer-appropriate processing framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 657–668.Google Scholar
Blumen, H. M., & Rajaram, S. (2008). Influence of re-exposure and retrieval disruption during group collaboration on later individual recall. Memory, 16, 231–244.Google Scholar
Bousfield, W. A. (1953). The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associated. Journal of General Psychology, 49, 229–240.Google Scholar
Bower, G. H., Clark, M. C., Lesgold, A. M., & Winzenz, D. (1969). Hierarchical retrieval schemes in recall of categorized word lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 323–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (2000). Studies on Hysteria. Translated by Strachey, J.. New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1893)Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. (1958). Perception and Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Broadbent, D. (1970). Frederic Charles Bartlett, 1886–1969. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 16, 1–13.Google Scholar
Brown, R. (1958). Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10, 12–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R. (1958). Words and Things: An Introduction to Language. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73–99.Google Scholar
Brown, W. (1923). To what extent is memory measured by a single recall? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 6, 377–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkins, M. W. (1894). Association: I. Psychological Review, 1, 476–483.Google Scholar
Calkins, M. W. (1896). Association: II. Psychological Review, 3, 32–49.Google Scholar
Calkins, M. W. (1898). Short studies in memory and in association from the Wellesley Colelege Psychological Laboratory: I. A study of immediate and of delayed recall of the concrete and of the verbal. Psychological Review, 5, 451–456.Google Scholar
Calkins, M. W. (1930). Mary Whiton Calkins. In Murchison, C. (Ed.), A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 31–62). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.Google Scholar
Carmichael, L., Hogan, H. P., & Walter, A. A. (1932). An experimental study of the effect of language on the reproduction of visually perceived form. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 15, 73–86.Google Scholar
Cerella, J. (1985). Information processing rates in the elderly. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 67–83.Google Scholar
Cherry, E. C. (1953). Some experiments on the recognition of speech with one and with two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 25, 975–979.Google Scholar
Choi, S. H. (1992). Communicative socialization processes: Korea and Canada. In Iwasaki, S., Kashima, Y., & Leung, K. (Eds.), Innovations in Cross-Cultural Psychology (pp. 103–122). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic Structures. New York: Mouton.Google Scholar
Coman, A., Momennejad, I., Drach, R. D., & Geana, A. (2016). Mnemonic convergence in social networks: The emergent properties of cognition at a collective level. PNAS, 113, 8171–8176.Google Scholar
Congleton, A. R., & Rajaram, S. (2011). The influence of learning methods on collaboration: Prior repeated retrieval enhances retrieval organization, abolishes collaborative inhibition, and promotes post-collaborative memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140, 535–551.Google Scholar
Conway, A. R., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003). Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 547–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conway, M. A., & Holmes, A. (2004). Psychosocial stages and the accessibility of autobiographical memories across the life cycle. Journal of Personality, 72, 461–480.Google Scholar
Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cowan, N. (2008). What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? Progress in Brain Research, 169, 323–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, F. I. M. (2002). Levels of processing: Past, present … and future? Memory, 10, 305–318.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268–294.Google Scholar
Crovitz, H. F., & Schiffman, H. (1974). Frequency of episodic memories as a function of their age. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 4, 517–518.Google Scholar
Crowder, R. G. (1976). Principles of Learning and Memory. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Crowder, R. G., & Morton, J. (1969). Precategorical acoustic storage (PAS). Perception & Psychology, 66, 65–71.Google Scholar
Cuc, A., Koppel, J., & Hirst, W. (2007). Silence is not golden: A case for socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting. Psychological Science, 18, 727–733.Google Scholar
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 450–466.Google Scholar
Douglas, M. (2000). Memory and selective attention: Bartlett and Evans-Pritchard. In Saito, A. (Ed.), Bartlett, Culture & Cognition (pp. 179–193). Cambridge: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques. Promising Directions from Cognitive and Educational Psychology, 14, 4–58.Google ScholarPubMed
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.Google Scholar
Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Echterhoff, G., & Hirst, W. (2006). Thinking about memories for everyday and shocking events: Do people use ease-of-retrieval cues in memory judgments? Memory & Cognition, 34, 763–775.Google Scholar
Fagin, M. M., Yamashiro, J. K., & Hirst, W. (2013). The adaptive function of distributed remembering: Contributions to the formation of collective memory. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 4, 91–106.Google Scholar
Fechner, G. (1860/1966). Elements of Psychophysics (Vol. 1.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Feigenbaum, E. A. (1970). Information processing and memory. In Norman, D. A. (Ed.), Models of Human Memory (pp. 451–468). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Feigenbaum, E. A., & Simon, H. A. (1962). A theory of the serial position effect. British Journal of Psychology, 53, 307–320.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, J. M. (1988). Vivid memories and the reminiscence phenomenon: The role of a self narrative. Human Development, 31, 261–273.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, J. M. (1996). The distribution of self-narrative memories in younger and older adults: Elaborating the self-narrative hypothesis. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 3, 229–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fivush, R., Haden, C. A., & Reese, E. (1996). Remembering, recounting and reminiscing: The development of autobiographical memory in social context. In Rubin, D. C. (Ed.), Remembering Our Past: Studies of Autobiographical Memory (pp. 341–359). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fodor, J. (1991). Methodological solipsism considered as a research strategy in cognitive psychology. In Boyd, R., Gasper, P., & Trout, J. D. (Eds.), The Philosophy of Science (pp. 651–669). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Galton, F. (1879). Psychometric experiments. Brain, 2, 148–162.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1985). The Mind’s New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 351–360.Google Scholar
Glaze, J. A. (1928). The association value of non-sense syllables. Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 35, 255–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graf, P., & Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 501–518.Google Scholar
Graf, P., Squire, L. R., & Mandler, G. (1984). The information that amnesic patients do not forget. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10, 164–178.Google Scholar
Halbwachs, M. (1925/1992). On Collective Memory. Translated by Coser, L. A.. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hall, J. (1971). Verbal Learning and Retention. Philadelphia: Lippincott.Google Scholar
Harber, K. D., & Cohen, D. J. (2005). The emotional broadcaster theory of social sharing. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 382–400.Google Scholar
Healy, A. F., & McNamara, D. S. (1996). Verbal learning and memory: Does the modal model still work? Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 143–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Henrich, J. Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 83–135.Google Scholar
Hirst, W., & Echterhoff, G. (2012). Remembering in conversations: The social sharing and reshaping of memories. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 55–79.Google Scholar
Hirst, W., & Manier, D. (2008). Towards a psychology of collective memory. Memory, 16, 183–200.Google Scholar
Hirst, W., Phelps, E. A., Meksin, R., Vaidya, C. J., Johnson, M. K., Mitchell, K. J., Buckner, R. L. et al. (2015). A ten-year follow-up of a study of memory for the attack of September 11, 2001: Flashbulb Memories and Memories for Flashbulb Events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144, 604–623.Google Scholar
Hirst, W., & Yamashiro, J. K. (2017). Social aspects of forgetting. In Meade, M. L., Barnier, A., Van Bergen, P., Harris, C., & Sutton, J. (Eds.), Collective Remembering: How Remembering with Others Influences Memory (pp. 76–99). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hirst, W., Yamashiro, J. K., & Coman, A. (2018). Collective memory from a psychological perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22, 438–451.Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1952). A Behavior System: An Introduction to Behavior Theory Concerning the Individual Organism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L. (1983). Remembering the data: Analyzing interactive processes in reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 485–508.Google Scholar
Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 306–340.Google Scholar
James, W. (1885). Experiments in memory. Science, 6, 198–199.Google Scholar
James, W. (1890). Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Janssen, S. M. J., Kristo, G., Rouw, R., & Murre, J. M. J. (2015). The relation between verbal and visuospatial memory and autobiographical memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 31, 12–23.Google Scholar
Jenkins, J. G., & Dallenbach, K. M. (1924). Oblivescence during sleep and waking. American Journal of Psychology, 35, 605–612.Google Scholar
Kail, R. V. (2007). Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children’s reasoning. Psychological Science, 18, 312–313.Google Scholar
Karpicke, J. D. (2012). Retrieval-based learning: Active retrieval promotes meaningful learning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 157–163.Google Scholar
Kausler, D. H. (1974). Psychology of Verbal Learning and Memory. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1973). Remembering operations. Memory & Cognition, 1, 347–355.Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A. (1976). Reading a year later. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning & Memory, 2, 554–565.Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A., & Perkins, D. N. (1975). Spatial and ordinal components of form perception and literacy. Cognitive Psychology, 7, 228–267.Google Scholar
Kolers, P. A., & Roediger, H. L. III. (1984). Procedures of mind. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 425–449.Google Scholar
Koppel, J., & Berntsen, D. (2015). The peaks of life: The differential temporal locations of the reminiscence bump across disparate cueing methods. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 4, 66–80.Google Scholar
Koppel, J., & Rubin, D. (2016). Recent advances in understanding the reminiscence bump: The importance of cues in guiding recall from autobiographical memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 135–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leahey, T. H. (2004). A History of Psychology: Main Currents in Psychological Thought (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Linton, M. (1975). Memory for real-world events. In Norman, D. A. & Rumelhart, D. E. (Eds.), Explorations in Cognition (pp. 366–404). San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Linton, M. (1978). Real-world memory after six years: An in vivo study of very long-term memory. In Grunebert, M. M., Morris, P. E., & Sykes, R. N. (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory (pp. 69–76). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Livingston, R. B. (1967). Reinforcement. In Quarton, G. C., Melnechuck, T., & Schmitt, F. O. (Eds.), The Neurosciences: A Study Program (pp. 568–576). New York: Rockefeller University Press.Google Scholar
Lockhart, R. S., & Craik, F. I. M. (1990). Levels of processing: A retrospective commentary on a framework for memory research. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 44, 87–112.Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518–537.Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning & Memory, 12, 361–366.Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585–589.Google Scholar
Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Lyons, A., & Kashima, Y. (2001). The reproduction of culture: Communication processes tend to maintain cultural stereotypes. Social Cognition, 19, 372–394.Google Scholar
Madigan, S., & O’Hara, R. (1992). Short-term memory at the turn of the century: Mary Whiton Calkins’ memory research. American Psychologist, 47, 170–174.Google Scholar
Mandler, G. (1967). Organization and memory. In Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T. (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Vol. 1, pp. 328–371) New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mandler, G., & Pearlstone, Z. (1966). Free and constrained concept learning and subsequent recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 126–131.Google Scholar
Marr, D. (1982). Vision. San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Marsh, E. J. (2007). Retelling is not the same as recalling: Implications for memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 16–20.Google Scholar
McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L. III, McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2010). The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology, 24, 222–243.Google Scholar
McDermott, K. B., Szpunar, K. K., & Christ, S. E. (2009). Laboratory-based and autobiographical retrieval tasks differ substantially in their neural substrates. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2290–2298.Google Scholar
McGeoch, J. A. (1932). Forgetting and the law of disuse. Psychological Review, 39, 352–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meade, M. L., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2002). Explorations in the social contagion of memory. Memory & Cognition, 30, 995–1009.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 101(2), 343–352.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (Eds.)(1999). Models of Working Memory: Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Moray, N. (1959). Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11, 56–60.Google Scholar
Morris, C., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 519–533.Google Scholar
Morton, J. (1970). A functional model for memory. In Norman, D. A. (Ed.), Models of Human Memory (pp. 203–248). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mullen, M. K., & Yi, S. (1995). The cultural context of talk about the past: Implications for the development of autobiographical memory. Cognitive Development 10, 407–419.Google Scholar
Munsterberg, H. (1908/1925). On the Witness Stand: Essays on Psychology and Crime. New York: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Murdock, B. B. (1974). Human Memory: Theory and Data. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and Reality. San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Neisser, U. (1982). Memory Observed: Remembering in Natural Contexts. San Francisco: Freeman.Google Scholar
Nelson, K. (1996). Language in Cognitive Development: Emergence of the Mediated Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nelson, K., & Fivush, R. (2000). Socialization of memory. In Tulving, E. & Craik, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Memory (pp. 283–295). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nelson, T. O. (1977). Repetition and depth processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 151–171.Google Scholar
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1976). Computer science as empirical inquiry: Symbols and search. Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 19(3), 113–126.Google Scholar
Pasupathi, M., McLean, K. C., & Weeks, T. (2009). To tell or not to tell: Disclosure and the narrative self. Journal of Personality, 77, 89–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perfect, T. J., & Lindsay, D. S. (2014). The SAGE Handbook of Applied Memory. New York: Sage.Google Scholar
Peterson, L., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198.Google Scholar
Postman, L. (1963). Does interference theory predict too much forgetting? Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 40–48.Google Scholar
Postman, L. (1964). Short-term memory and incidental learning. In Melton, A. W. (Ed.), Categories of Human Learning (pp. 145–201). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Postman, L., & Phillips, L. W. (1965). Short-term temporal changes in free recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17, 132–138.Google Scholar
Postman, L., & Underwood, B. J. (1973). Critical issues in interference theory. Memory & Cognition, 1, 19–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, A., Ross, M., Soter, L., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2018). Collective narcissism: Americans exaggerate the role of their home state in appraising U.S. history. Psychological Science, 29, 1414–1422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radvansky, G. (Ed.). (2010). Human Memory. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rajaram, S., & Pereira-Pasarin, L. P. (2010). Collaborative memory: Cognitive research and theory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 649–663.Google Scholar
Rajaram, S., & Roediger, H. L. III. (1993). Direct comparison of four implicit memory tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 19, 765–776.Google ScholarPubMed
Reber, A. S. (1967). Implicit learning of artificial grammars. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 855–863.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. A. (1992). First experience memories: Contexts and functions in personal memories. In Conway, M. A., Rubin, D. C., Spinnler, H., & Wagenaar, W. A. (Eds.), Theoretical Perspectives on Autobiographical Memory (pp. 223–239). Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III. (1980). Memory metaphors in cognitive psychology. Memory & Cognition, 8, 231–246.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., (1985). Remembering Ebbinghaus. Contemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews, 30, 519–523.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., (1991). They read an article? A commentary on the everyday memory controversy. American Psychologist, 46, 37–40.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., (1993). Learning and memory: Progress and challenge. In Meyer, D. E. & Kornblum, S. (Eds.), Attention and Performance XIV: A Silver Jubilee (pp. 509–528). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., (1996). Memory illusions. Journal of Memory and Language, 35, 76–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roediger, H. L., (2000). Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett: Experimental and applied psychologists. In Kimble, G. A. & Wertheimer, M. (Eds.), Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 155–167). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L., (2008). Relativity of remembering: Why the laws of memory vanished. In Fiske, S. (Ed.), Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 225–254.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, & Blaxton, T. A. (1987). Effects of varying modality, surface features and retention interval on priming in word fragment completion. Memory & Cognition, 15, 379–388.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, & DeSoto, K. A. (2014). Forgetting the presidents. Science, 346, 1106–1109.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, & McDermott, K. B. (1993). Implicit memory in normal human subjects. In Boller, F. & Grafman, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Neuropsychology (Vol. 8, pp. 63–131). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, Meade, M. L., & Bergman, E. T. (2001). Social contagion of memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 365–371.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, Meade, M. L., Gallo, D. A., & Olson, K. R. (2014). Bartlett revisited: Direct comparison of repeated reproduction and serial reproduction techniques. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 3, 266–271.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, Weldon, M. S., & Challis, B. H. (1989). Explaining dissociations between impliciti and explicit measures of retention: A processing account. In Roediger, H. L. III & Craik, F. I. M. (Eds.), Varieties of Memory and Consciousness: Essays in Honour of Endel Tulving (pp. 3–41). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Roediger, H. L. III, Zaromb, F., & Butler, A. (2009). The role of repeated retrieval in shaping collective memory. In Boyer, P. & Wertsch, J. (Eds.), Memory in Mind and Culture (pp. 138–170). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C. (1982). On the retention function for autobiographical memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 21–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rubin, D. C. (Ed.). (1986). Autobiographical Memory. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C., & Berntsen, D. (2003). Life scripts help to maintain autobiographical memories of highly positive, but not highly negative, events. Memory & Cognition, 31, 1–14.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C., Rahhal, T. A., & Poon, L. W. (1998). Things learned in early adulthood are remembered best. Memory & Cognition, 26, 3–19.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C., & Schulkind, M. D. (1997). The distribution of autobiographical memories across the lifespan. Memory & Cognition, 25, 859–866.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C., & Wenzel, A. E. (1996). One hundred years of forgetting: A quantitative description of retention. Psychological Review, 103, 734–760.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. C., Wetzler, S. E., & Nebes, R. D. (1986). Autobiographical memory across the lifespan. In Rubin, D. C. (Ed.), Autobiographical Memory (pp. 202–221). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 501–518.Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L. (2001). The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. New York: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Schacter, D. L., Dobbins, I. G., & Schnyer, D. M. (2004). Specificity of priming: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 853–862.Google Scholar
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, Plans, Goals and Understanding: An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Schrauf, R. W., & Rubin, D. C. (1998). Bilingual autobiographical memory in older adult immigrants: A test of cognitive explanations of the reminiscence bump and the linguistic encoding of memories. Journal of Memory and Language, 39, 437–457.Google Scholar
Shannon, C. E. (1948). A mathematical theory of communication. Bell Labs Technical Journal, 27, 379–423.Google Scholar
Shiffrin, R. M., & Atkinson, R. C. (1969). Storage and retrieval processes in long-term memory. Psychological Review, 76, 179–193.Google Scholar
Slamecka, N. J. (1985). Ebbinghaus: Some associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11, 414–435.Google Scholar
Slamecka, N. J., & Graf, P. (1978). The generation effect: Delineation of a phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 592–604.Google Scholar
Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs, 74, 1–29.Google Scholar
Sperling, G. (1970). Short-term memory, long-term memory, and scanning in the processing of visual information. In Young, F. A. & Lindsley, D. B. (Eds.), Early Experience and Visual Information Processing in Perceptual and Reading Disorders (pp. 198–218). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Squire, L. R. (1987). Memory and Brain. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sterelny, K. (2010). Minds: Extended or scaffolded? Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 9, 465–481.Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1966). High-speed scanning in human memory. Science, 153, 652–654.Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (1969). Memory-scanning: Mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments. American Scientist, 57, 421–457.Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. (2016). In defense of high-speed memory scanning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69, 2020–2075.Google Scholar
Stone, C. B., Coman, A., Brown, A. D., Koppel, J., & Hirst, W. (2012). Toward a science of silence: The consequences of leaving a memory unsaid. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 39–53.Google Scholar
Szpunar, K. K. (2010). Episodic future thought: An emerging concept. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 142–162.Google Scholar
Szpunar, K. K., Watson, J. M., & McDermott, K. B. (2007). Neural substrates of envisioning the future. PNAS, 104, 642–647.Google Scholar
Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455–461.Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The Elements of Psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler.Google Scholar
Thorndike, E. L. (1914). The Psychology of Learning. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189–208.Google Scholar
Treisman, A. M. (1964). Selective attention in man. British Medical Bulletin, 20, 12–16.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1962). Subjective organization in free recall of “unrelated” words. Psychological Review, 69, 344–354.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1966). Subjective organization and effects of repetition in multi-trial free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 193–197.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In Tulving, E. & Donaldson, W. (Eds.), Organization of Memory (pp. 381–402). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1979). Relation between encoding specificity and levels of processing. In Cermak, L. S. & Craik, F. I. M. (Eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory (pp. 405–428). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1983). Elements of Episodic Memory. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 26, 1–12.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (1992) Ebbinghaus, Hermann. In Squire, L. R. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Learning and Memory (pp. 151–154). New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (2007). Are there 256 different kinds of memory? In Nairne, J. S. (Ed.), The Foundations of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Henry L. Roediger, III (pp. 39–54). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Tulving, E., & Pearlstone, Z. (1966). Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 381–391.Google Scholar
Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic meory. Psychological Review, 80, 352–373.Google Scholar
Underwood, B. J. (1957). Interference and forgetting. Psychological Review, 64, 49–60.Google Scholar
Unsworth, N. & Engle, R. W. (2007). The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory. Psychological Review, 114, 104–132.Google Scholar
Unsworth, N., Heitz, R. P., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2005). An automated version of the operation span task. Behavior Research Methods, 37, 498–505.Google Scholar
Von Neumann, J. (1958). The Computer and the Brain. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wang, Q., Leichtman, M. D., & Davies, K. I. (2000). Sharing memories and telling stories: American and Chinese mothers and their 3-year olds. Memory, 8, 159–177.Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K., & Weiskrantz, L. (1968). New method of testing long-term retention with special reference to amnesic patients. Nature, 217, 972–974.Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K., & Weiskrantz, L. (1970). Amnesic syndrome: Consolidation or retrieval? Nature, 228, 628–630.Google Scholar
Watkins, M. J. (1977). The intricacy of memory span. Memory & Cognition, 5, 529–534.Google Scholar
Waugh, N. C., & Norman, D. A. (1965). Primary memory. Psychological Review, 72, 89–104.Google Scholar
Weldon, M. S., & Bellinger, K. D. (1997). Collective memory: Collaborative and individual processes in remembering. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1160–1175.Google Scholar
Weldon, M. S., & Roediger, H. L. III. (1987). Altering retrieval demands reverses the picture superiority effect. Memory & Cognition, 15, 269–280.Google Scholar
Wertsch, J. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wertsch, J., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2008). Collective memory: Conceptual foundations and theoretical approaches. Memory, 16, 318–326.Google Scholar
Whittle, P. (2000). W. H. R. Rivers and the early history of psychology at Cambridge. In Saito, A. (Ed.), Bartlett, Culture & Cognition (pp. 21–35). Cambridge: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Wixted, J. T., & Carpenter, S. K. (2007). The Wickelgren power law and the Ebbinghaus savings function. Psychological Science, 18, 133–134.Google Scholar
Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The relationship between eyewitness confidence and identification accuracy: A new synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18, 10–65.Google Scholar
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zangwill, O. L. (1972). Remembering revisited. Bulletin de Psychologie, 41, 165–174.Google Scholar
Zaromb, F. M., & Roediger, H. L. III (2009). The effects of “effort after meaning” on recall: Differences in within- and between-subjects designs. Memory & Cognition, 37, 447–463.Google Scholar
Zaromb, F. M., Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. III. (2010). Comprehension as a basis for metacognitive judgments: Effects of effort after meaning on recall and metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 36, 552–557.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×