Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-b4m5d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-21T01:44:18.389Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - The Development of Emotion Regulation and Coping in Early Childhood

from Part IV - Psychological Foundations of the Development of Coping

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 June 2023

By
Pamela M. Cole ,
Tawni B. Stoop  and
Gabrielle S. Cardwell
Edited by
Ellen A. Skinner  and
Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck
Ellen A. Skinner
Affiliation:
Portland State University
Melanie J. Zimmer-Gembeck
Affiliation:
Griffith University, Queensland
Get access

Summary

We all must learn to manage our emotions – positive and negative – and cope with stress. This learning begins in early childhood. After relying completely on caregivers in infancy, during early childhood children begin to develop the ability to regulate their own emotions and cope with stress. Focusing on those early years, this chapter reviews what we know about the development of emotion regulation and coping. We also note gaps in our knowledge that must be addressed for a full accounting of the development of such important aspects of children’s functioning. We highlight the need to understand relations among early stress reactivity and emotional development, and the intersecting trajectories of emotion regulation and coping development. Because most early childhood research focuses on individual differences, we underscore the importance of also studying regulation and coping as within-person processes.

Keywords

emotion regulationcopingstressearly childhoodwithin-person process
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of the Development of Coping , pp. 325 - 350
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, B. P., Abe, J. A., & Izard, C. E. (1998). Differential emotions theory and emotional development: Mindful of modularity. In Moascolo, M. F. & Griff, S. (Eds.), What develops in emotional development? (pp. 85–106). Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adolphs, R., & Andler, D. (2018). Investigating emotions as functional states distinct from feelings. Emotion Review, 10(3), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073918765662CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altshuler, J. L., & Ruble, D. N. (1989). Developmental changes in children’s awareness of strategies for coping with uncontrollable stress. Child Development, 60(6), 1337–1349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1989.tb04007.xGoogle Scholar
August, E. G., Stack, D. M., Martin-Storey, A., Serbin, L. A., Ledingham, J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2017). Emotion regulation in at-risk preschoolers: longitudinal associations and influences of maternal histories of risk. Infant and Child Development, 26(1), Article e1954. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1954Google Scholar
Antal, H., Wysocki, T., Canas, J. A., Taylor, A., & Edney-White, A. (2011). Parent report and direct observation of injection-related coping behaviors in youth with type 1 diabetes. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36(3), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsq082Google Scholar
Barrett, K. C., & Campos, J. J. (1987). Perspectives on emotional development II: A functionalist approach to emotions. In Osofsky, J. (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (pp. 555–578). Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, E., & Strayer, F. F. (2008). Beyond fight or flight: Developmental changes in young children’s coping with peer conflict. Acta Ethologica, 11, 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10211-007-0037-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendezú, J. J., Cole, P. M., Tan, P. Z., Armstrong, L. M., Reitz, E., & Wolf, R. (2018). Child language and parenting antecedents and externalizing outcomes of emotion regulation pathways across early childhood: A person-centered approach. Development and Psychopathology, 30(4), 1253–1268. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001675CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernzweig, J., Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1993). Children′ s coping in self-and other-relevant contexts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 55(2), 208–226. https://doi.org/10.1006/jecp.1993.1012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binion, G., & Zalewski, M. (2018). Maternal emotion dysregulation and the functional organization of preschoolers’ emotional expressions and regulatory behaviors. Emotion, 18(3), 386–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000319CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, B. L., Perry, N. B., O’Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., & Shanahan, L. (2015). Identifying developmental cascades among differentiated dimensions of social competence and emotion regulation. Developmental Psychology, 51(8), 1062–1073. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039472Google Scholar
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children’s functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.2.111Google Scholar
Blair, C. B., & Ku, S. (2022). A hierarchical integrated model of self-regulation. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 725828. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.725828Google Scholar
Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., Grimm, K. J., Keane, S. P., & O’Brien, M. (2010). Testing a developmental cascade model of emotional and social competence and early peer acceptance. Development and Psychopathology, 22(4), 737–748. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000428Google Scholar
Blankson, A. N., O’Brien, M., Leerkes, E. M., Marcovitch, S., Calkins, S. D., & Weaver, J. M. (2013). Developmental dynamics of emotion and cognition processes in preschoolers. Child Development, 84(1), 346–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01841.xGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R. H. (2007). Parenting in the breach: How parents help children cope with developmentally challenging circumstances. Parenting: Science and Practice, 7(2), 99–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190701306896Google Scholar
Brophy-Herb, H. E., Stansbury, K., Bocknek, E., & Holodynski, M. A. (2012). Modeling maternal emotion-related socialization behaviors in a low-income sample: Relations with toddlers’ self-regulation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.11.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, E. D., Seyler, M. D., Knorr, A. M., Garnett, M. L., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2016). Daily poverty‐related stress and coping: Associations with child learned helplessness. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 65(4), 591–602. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buss, K. A., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1998). Fear and anger regulation in infancy: Effects on the temporal dynamics of affective expression. Child Development, 69(2), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06195.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, E. A., & Randall, A. K. (2013). Emotional coregulation in close relationships. Emotion Review, 5(2), 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912451630Google Scholar
Calkins, S. D., & Perry, N. B. (2016). The development of emotion regulation: Implications for child adjustment. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology: Maladaptation and psychopathology (pp. 187–242). Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy306Google Scholar
Campos, J. J., Frankel, C. B., & Camras, L. (2004). On the nature of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75(2), 377–394. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00681.xGoogle Scholar
Campos, J. J., Hiatt, S., Ramsay, D., Henderson, C., & Svejda, M. (1978). The emergence of fear on the visual cliff. In Lewis, M. & Rosenblum, L. A. (Eds.), The development of affect: Genesis of behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 149–182). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8_6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camras, L. A., & Shutter, J. M. (2010). Emotional facial expressions in infancy. Emotion Review, 2(2), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073909352529Google Scholar
Cardwell, G. S., Cole, P. M., Lunkenheimer, E. S., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Buss, K. A., & Ram, N. (2022). Developmental differences in young children’s implied use of cognitive resources in their self-regulation strategies [Manuscript submitted for publication].Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Wang, T. S. (2007). Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 22(4), 489–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.002Google Scholar
Chen, X., Wu, X., & Wang, Y. (2018). Mothers’ emotional expression and discipline and preschoolers’ emotional regulation strategies: Gender differences. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(11), 3709–3716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1199-9Google Scholar
Cole, P. M. (2016). The role of emotion in the development of psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (3rd ed., pp. 265–324). Wiley.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Bendezú, J. B., Chow, S.-M., & Ram, N. (2017). Dynamical systems modeling of early childhood self-regulation. Emotion, 17(4), 684–699. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000268CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., Dennis, T. A., & Martin, S. E. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.xGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M., Dennis, T. A., Smith‐Simon, K. E., & Cohen, L. H. (2009). Preschoolers’ emotion regulation strategy understanding: Relations with emotion socialization and child self‐regulation. Social Development, 18(2), 324–352. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00503.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M., Lougheed, J., Chow, S.-M., & Ram, N. (2020). Longitudinal changes in development of emotion regulation dynamics in early childhood. Affective Science, 1, 8–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-020-00004-yGoogle Scholar
Cole, P. M., Ram, N., & English, M. S. (2019). Toward a unifying model of self-regulation: A developmental approach. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12316Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Tan, P. Z., Hall, S. E., Zhang, Y., Crnic, K. A., Blair, C. B., & Li, R. (2011). Developmental changes in anger expression and attention focus: Learning to wait. Developmental Psychology, 47(4), 1078–1089. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023813Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Desjardins, L., Vannatta, K., Young-Saleme, T., Rodriguez, E. M., Dunn, M., Bemis, H., Snyder, S., & Gerhardt, C. A. (2014). Children and adolescents coping with cancer: Self- and parent reports of coping and anxiety/depression. Health Psychology, 33(8), 853–861. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000083Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Dunbar, J. P., Watson, K. H., Bettis, A. H., Gruhn, M. A., & Williams, E. K. (2014). Coping and emotion regulation from childhood to early adulthood: Points of convergence, points of divergence. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12043.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., Ballard, M., El-Sheikh, M., & Lake, M. (1991). Resolution and children’s responses to interadult anger. Developmental Psychology, 27(3), 462–470. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.27.3.462Google Scholar
Denham, S. (2003). Emotional development in young children. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dennis, T. A., & Kelemen, D. A. (2009). Preschool children’s views on emotion regulation: Functional associations and implications for social-emotional adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33(3), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025408098024Google Scholar
Dollar, J. M., Calkins, S. D., Berry, N. T., Perry, N. B., Keane, S. P., Shanahan, L., & Wideman, L. (2020). Developmental patterns of respiratory sinus arrhythmia from toddlerhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 56(4), 783–794. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000894Google Scholar
du Pont, A., Welker, K., Gilbert, K. E., & Gruber, J. (2016). The emerging field of positive emotion dysregulation. In Vohs, K. & Baumeister, R. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 364–379). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children’s externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72(4), 1112–1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00337Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9(4), 241–273. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Guthrie, I. K., Jones, S., Friedman, J., Poulin, R., & Maszk, P. (1997). Contemporaneous and longitudinal prediction of children’s social functioning from regulation and emotionality. Child Development, 68(4), 642–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04227.xGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Minore, D., Mathy, R., Hanish, L., & Brown, T. (1994). Children’s enacted interpersonal strategies: The relations to social behavior and negative emotionality. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 212–232.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Smith, C. L., Sadovsky, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2016). Effortful control: Relations with emotion regulation, adjustment, and socialization in childhood. In Vohs, K. & Baumeister, R. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory and applications (2nd ed., pp. 259–282). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Emde, R. N., Wolf, D. P., & Oppenheim, D. (Eds.). (2003). Revealing the inner worlds of young children: The MacArthur Story Stem Battery and parent-child narratives. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1992). Young children’s coping with interpersonal anger. Child Development, 63(1), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb03600.xGoogle Scholar
Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Karbon, M., Troyer, D., & Switzer, G. (1994). The relations of children’s emotion regulation to their vicarious emotional responses and comforting behaviors. Child Development, 65(6), 1678–1693. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00842.xGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R. (2009). The development of regulatory functions from birth to 5 years: Insights from premature infants. Child Development, 80, 544–561. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01278.xGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R. (2017). The neurobiology of human attachments. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21, 80–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.007Google Scholar
Fields, L., & Prinz, R. J. (1997). Coping and adjustment during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 17(8), 937–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-7358(97)00033-0.Google Scholar
Fischer, K. W. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills. Psychological Review, 87(6), 477–531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.6.477Google Scholar
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing.Google Scholar
Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Geangu, E., Benga, O., Stahl, D., & Striano, T. (2011). Individual differences in infants’ emotional resonance to a peer in distress: Self-other awareness and emotion regulation. Social Development, 20(3), 450–470. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00596.xGoogle Scholar
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.38.2.222Google Scholar
Graziano, P. A., Reavis, R. D., Keane, S. P., & Calkins, S. D. (2007). The role of emotion regulation in children’s early academic success. Journal of School Psychology, 45(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.09.002Google Scholar
Grenell, A., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2019). Individual differences in the effectiveness of self-distancing for young children’s emotion regulation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 37(1), 84–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12259Google Scholar
Grolnick, W. S., Bridges, L. J., & Connell, J. P. (1996). Emotion regulation in two‐year‐olds: Strategies and emotional expression in four contexts. Child Development, 67(3), 928–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01774.xGoogle Scholar
Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R. (2000). Early adversity and the development of stress reactivity and regulation. In Nelson, C. A. (Ed.), The Minnesota symposia on child psychology: Vol. 31. The effects of early adversity on neurobehavioral development (pp. 163–200). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Hostinar, C. E., Sanchez, M. M., Tottenham, N., & Sullivan, R. M. (2015). Parental buffering of fear and stress neurobiology: Reviewing parallels across rodent, monkey, and human models. Social Neuroscience, 10(5), 474–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2015.1070198Google Scholar
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085605Google Scholar
Guo, Y., Leu, S., Barnard, K. E., Thompson, E. A., & Spieker, S. J. (2015). An examination of changes in emotion co‐regulation among mother and child dyads during the Strange Situation. Infant and Child Development, 24(3), 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1917Google Scholar
Halpern, L. F. (2004). The relations of coping and family environment to preschoolers’ problem behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 399–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.06.001Google Scholar
Halverson, C. F., & Waldrop, M. F. (1974). Relations between preschool barrier behaviors and early school-age measures of coping, imagination, and verbal development. Developmental Psychology, 10(5), 716–720. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037017Google Scholar
Harrington, E. M., Trevino, S. D., Lopez, S., & Giuliani, N. R. (2020). Emotion regulation in early childhood: Implications for socioemotional and academic components of school readiness. Emotion, 20(1), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000667Google Scholar
Hu, Y., Wang, Y., & Liu, A. (2017). The influence of mothers’ emotional expressivity and class grouping on Chinese preschoolers’ emotional regulation strategies. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(3), 824–832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0606-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1991). The psychology of emotions. Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Kliewer, W., Parrish, K. A., Taylor, K. W., Jackson, K., Walker, J. M., & Shivy, V. A. (2006). Socialization of coping with community violence: Influences of caregiver coaching, modeling, and family context. Child Development, 77(3), 605–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00893.xGoogle Scholar
Kopp, C. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A developmental perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.18.2.199CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopp, C. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 343–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.25.3.343Google Scholar
Kopp, C. (2011). Development in the early years: Socialization, motor development, and consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 165–187. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131625Google Scholar
Kromm, H., Färber, M., & Holodynski, M. (2015). Felt or false smiles? Volitional regulation of emotional expression in 4‐, 6‐, and 8‐year‐old children. Child Development, 86(2), 579–597. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12315Google Scholar
Langer, D. A., Chen, E., & Luhmann, J. D. (2005). Attributions and coping in children’s pain experiences. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30(7), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsio47Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Lessing, N., Kappes, C., Greve, W., & Mähler, C. (2019). Developmental conditions of accommodative coping in childhood: The role of executive functions. Cognitive Development, 50, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2019.02.002Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., Zimmerman, S., Hollenstein, T., & Lamey, A. V. (2004). Reorganization in coping behavior at 1½ years: Dynamic systems and normative change. Developmental Science, 7(1), 56–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00323.xGoogle Scholar
Liebermann, D., Giesbrecht, G. F., & Müller, U. (2007). Cognitive and emotional aspects of self-regulation in preschoolers. Cognitive Development, 22(4), 511–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.005Google Scholar
Loman, M. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(6), 867–876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007Google Scholar
Losoya, S., Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Developmental issues in the study of coping. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22, 287–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/01652598384388Google Scholar
Macfie, J., Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Robinson, J., Emde, R. N., & Cicchetti, D. (1999). Effect of maltreatment on preschoolers’ narrative representations of responses to relieve distress and of role reversal. Developmental Psychology, 35(2), 460–465. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.460Google Scholar
Mangelsdorf, S. C. (1992). Developmental changes in infant-stranger interaction. Infant Behavior and Development, 15(2), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(92)80023-NGoogle Scholar
Mathis, E. T. B., & Bierman, K. L. (2015). Dimensions of parenting associated with child prekindergarten emotion regulation and attention control in low-income families. Social Development, 24(3), 601–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12112Google Scholar
Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1(1), 146–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00005.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Mennin, D. S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2011). Emotion dysregulation and adolescent psychopathology: A prospective study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(9), 544–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.06.003Google Scholar
Meaney, M. J. (2001). Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 1161–1192. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161Google Scholar
Mirabile, S. P., Oertwig, D., & Halberstadt, A. G. (2018). Parent emotion socialization and children’s socioemotional adjustment: When is supportiveness no longer supportive? Social Development, 27(3), 466–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12226Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Criss, M. M., Silk, J. S., & Houltberg, B. J. (2017). The impact of parenting on emotion regulation during childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 11(4), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12238Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16(2), 361–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.xGoogle Scholar
Nabors, L., & Liddle, M. (2017). Perceptions of hospitalizations by children with chronic illnesses and siblings. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(6), 1681–1691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0688-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagy, E., Loveland, K. A., Kopp, M., Orvos, H., Pal, A., & Molnar, P. (2001). Different emergence of fear expressions in infant boys and girls. Infant Behavior and Development, 24(2), 189–194. https://doi.org/10.1016.S0163-6383(01)00070-4Google Scholar
Pat‐Horenczyk, R., Cohen, S., Ziv, Y., Achituv, M., Asulin‐Peretz, L., Blanchard, T. R., … Brom, D. (2015). Emotion regulation in mothers and young children faced with trauma. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36(3), 337–348. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21515Google Scholar
Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2Google Scholar
Perner, J., & Dienes, Z. (2003). Developmental aspects of consciousness: How much theory of mind do you need to be consciously aware. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(1), 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8100(02)00010-7Google Scholar
Perry, D. F., Dunne, M. C., McFadden, L., & Campbell, D. (2008). Reducing the risk for preschool expulsion: Mental health consultation for young children with challenging behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-007-9140-7Google Scholar
Perry, N. B., Calkins, S. D., Dollar, J. M., Keane, S. P., & Shanahan, L. (2018). Self-regulation as a predictor of patterns of change in externalizing behaviors from infancy to adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 30(2), 497–510. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000992Google Scholar
Perry, N. B., Dollar, J. M., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., & Shanahan, L. (2020). Maternal socialization of child emotion and adolescent adjustment: Indirect effects through emotion regulation. Developmental Psychology, 56(3), 541–552. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000815Google Scholar
Power, T. G. (2004). Stress and coping in childhood: The parents’ role. Parenting: Science and Practice, 4(4), 271–317. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0404_1Google Scholar
Ravindran, N., Genaro, B. G., & Cole, P. M. (2021). Parental structuring in response to toddler negative emotion predicts children’s later use of distraction as a self-regulation strategy for waiting. Child Development, 92(5), 1969–1983. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13563Google Scholar
Roben, C. K. P., Cole, P. M., & Armstrong, L. M. (2013). Longitudinal relations among language skills, anger expression, and regulatory strategies in early childhood. Child Development, 84, 891–905. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12027Google Scholar
Rochat, P. (2003). Five levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8100(03)00081-3Google Scholar
Rossman, B. B. R., & Gamble, W. (1997). Preschoolers’ understandings of physical injury: Stressor, affect, and coping appraisals. Children’s Health Care, 26, 77–96. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326888chc2602_2Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ellis, L. K., & Posner, M. I. (2011). Temperament and self-regulation. In Vohs, K. D. & Baumeister, R. F. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 441–460). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.1.5Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ziaie, H., & O’Boyle, C. G. (1992). Self-regulation and emotion in infancy. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, (55), 7–23.Google Scholar
Russell, B. S., Lee, J. O., Spieker, S., & Oxford, M. L. (2016). Parenting and preschool self-regulation as predictors of social emotional competence in 1st grade. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 30(2), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2016.1143414Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2000). Transactional regulation: The developmental ecology of early intervention. In Meisels, S. J. & Shonkoff, J. P. (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 135–159). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sandler, I. N., Schoenfelder, E. N., Wolchik, S. A., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2011). Long-term impact of prevention programs to promote effective parenting: Lasting effects but uncertain processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 299–329. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131619Google Scholar
Santucci, A. K., Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Gentzler, A., Fox, N. A., & Kovacs, M. (2008). Vagal tone and temperament as predictors of emotion regulation strategies in young children. Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 50(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20283Google Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M. (2005). The influence of social hierarchy on primate health. Science, 308(5722), 648–652. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1106477Google Scholar
Sayfan, L., & Lagattuta, K. H. (2009). Scaring the monster away: What children know about managing fears of real and imaginary creatures. Child Development, 80(6), 1756–1774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01366.xGoogle Scholar
Schaie, K. W., & Baltes, P. B. (1975). On sequential strategies in developmental research: Description or explanation. Human Development, 18(5), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271498Google Scholar
Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress. Lippincott.Google Scholar
Shewark, E. A., & Blandon, A. Y. (2015). Mothers’ and fathers’ emotion socialization and children’s emotion regulation: A within‐family model. Social Development, 24(2), 266–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12095Google Scholar
Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Peake, P. K. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self-regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 978–986. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.978Google Scholar
Skinner, E. A. (1999). Action regulation, coping, and development. In Brandtstadter, J & Lerner, R. M, Action & self-development: Theory and research through the life span (pp. 465–503). Sage Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452204802.n16Google Scholar
Skinner, E., & Edge, K. (2002). Parenting, motivation, and the development of children’s coping. In Crockett, L. J (Ed.), Agency, motivation, and the life course (pp. 77–143). University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, E. A., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. (2007). The development of coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 119–144. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085705Google Scholar
Smith, M., & Walden, T. (2001). An exploration of African-American preschool-aged children’s behavioral regulation in emotionally arousing situations. Child Study Journal, 31(1), 13–45.Google Scholar
Soltis, K., Davidson, T. M., Moreland, A., Felton, J., & Dumas, J. E. (2015). Associations among parental stress, child competence, and school-readiness: Findings from the PACE study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(3), 649–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9875-2Google Scholar
Stansbury, K., & Sigman, M. (2000). Responses of preschoolers in two frustrating situations: Emergence of complex strategies for emotion regulation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 161(2), 182–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320009596705Google Scholar
Supplee, L. H., Skuban, E. M., Trentacosta, C. J., Shaw, D. S., & Stoltz, E. (2011). Preschool boys’ development of emotional self-regulation strategies in a sample at risk for behavior problems. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 172(2), 95–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2010.510545Google Scholar
Tan, L., & Smith, C. L. (2019). Intergenerational transmission of maternal emotion regulation to child emotion regulation: Moderated mediation of maternal positive and negative emotions. Emotion, 19(7), 1284–1291. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000523Google Scholar
Tan, P. Z., Armstrong, L. M., & Cole, P. M. (2013). Relations between temperament and anger regulation over early childhood. Social Development, 22(4), 755–772. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2012.00674.xGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A., Lewis, M. D., & Calkins, S. D. (2008). Reassessing emotion regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 2(3), 124–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00054.xGoogle Scholar
Treiber, F. A., Seidner, A. L., Lee, A. A., Morgan, S. A., & Jackson, J. (1985). Effects of a group cognitive-behavioral treatment on preschool children’s responses to dental treatment. Children’s Health Care, 13(3), 117–121. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326888chc1303_4Google Scholar
Viddal, K. R., Berg-Nielsen, T., Belsky, J., & Wichstrøm, L. (2017). Change in attachment predicts change in emotion regulation particularly among 5-HTTLPR short-allele homozygotes. Developmental Psychology, 53(7), 1316–1329. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000321Google Scholar
Vikan, A., Kårstad, S. B., & Dias, M. (2013). Young Brazilian and Norwegian children’s concepts of strategies and goals for emotion regulation. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 11(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X12456981Google Scholar
Wadsworth, M. E., McDonald, A., Joos, C. M., Ahlkvist, J. A., Perzow, S. E. D., Tilghman-Osborne, E. M., Creavey, K., & Brelsford, G. M. (2020). Reducing the biological and psychological toxicity of poverty-related stress: Initial efficacy of the BaSICS intervention for early adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 65(3–4), 305–319. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12400Google Scholar
Wakschlag, L. S., Hill, C., Carter, A. S., Danis, B., Egger, H. L., Keenan, K., … & Briggs-Gowan, M. J. (2008). Observational assessment of preschool disruptive behavior, part I: Reliability of the Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule (DB-DOS). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 622–631. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816c5bdbGoogle Scholar
Wilson, B. J., Hoffner, C., & Cantor, J. (1987). Children’s perceptions of the effectiveness of techniques to reduce fear from mass media. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 8, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(87)90019-0.Google Scholar
Wong, M. (2016). A longitudinal study of children’s voices in regard to stress and coping during the transition to school. Early Child Development and Care, 186(6), 927–946. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2015.1068769Google Scholar
Wu, Q., Feng, X., Hooper, E., & Ku, S. (2017). Maternal emotion socialization, depressive symptoms and child emotion regulation: Child emotionality as a moderator. Infant and Child Development, 26(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1979Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P. M., Richardson, D. T., Friedman, R. J., Michel, M. K., & Belouad, F. (1994). Social problem solving in disruptive preschool children: Reactions to hypothetical situations of conflict and distress. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40(1), 98–119.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D. (2004). The development of conscious control in childhood. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(1), 12–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.001Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Cunningham, W. A. (2007). Executive function: Mechanisms underlying emotion regulation. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 135–158). American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Zelikovsky, N., Rodrigue, J. R., Gidycz, C. A., & Davis, M. A. (2000). Cognitive behavioral and behavioral interventions help young children cope during a voiding cystourethrogram. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25(8), 535–543. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/25.8.535Google Scholar
Zimmer-Gembeck, M., & Skinner, E. A. (2011). The development of coping across childhood and adolescence: An integrative review and critique of research. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025410384923Google Scholar
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Webb, H. J., Pepping, C. A., Swan, K., Merlo, O., Skinner, E. A., Avdagic, E., & Dunbar, M. (2017). Review: Is parent-child attachment a correlate of children’s emotion regulation and coping? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 4(1), 74–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025415618276Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×