Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T15:10:15.488Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Consonants

from Section I - Segmental Production

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2021

By
Michael Proctor
Edited by
Rachael-Anne Knight  and
Jane Setter
Rachael-Anne Knight
Affiliation:
City, University of London
Jane Setter
Affiliation:
University of Reading
Get access

Summary

Consonants are speech sounds produced with a closure or near complete constriction of the vocal tract. All languages systematically exploit place of articulation to differentiate consonants. Eight other phonetically independent parameters are used to create consonant contrast: airstream, constriction degree, laryngeal setting, nasality, laterality, length, articulator stiffness, and respiratory strength. Aspiration, affrication, pre-stopping, secondary articulations, and other properties of ‘complex’ consonants are best described as patterns of coordination in the underlying gestures.

Keywords

consonantphonetic parametersconstrictionplace of articulationcontrastairstream
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics , pp. 65 - 105
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

3.7 References

Abercrombie, D. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Abramson, A. S. (1986). The perception of word-initial consonant length: Pattani Malay. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 16(1), 8–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, W. S. (1981). The Greek contribution to the history of phonetics. In Asher, R. E. & Henderson, E. J., eds., Towards a History of Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 115–22.Google Scholar
Alwan, A., Narayanan, S. & Haker, K. (1997). Toward articulatory–acoustic models for liquid approximants based on MRI and EPG data. Part II. The rhotics. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 101(2), 1078–89.Google Scholar
Aoki, H. (1970). A note on glottalized consonants. Phonetica, 21(2), 65–74.Google Scholar
Ball, M. J. (1990). The lateral fricative: Lateral or fricative? In Ball, M. J., Fife, J., Poppe, E. & Rowland, J., eds., Celtic Linguistics/Ieithyddiaeth Geltaidd. Readings in the Brythonic Languages: Festschrift for T. Arwyn Watkins. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 109–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, W. J. (1997). Another r-tickle. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 27(1–2), 35–45.Google Scholar
Bell, A. M. (1863). The Principles of Speech and Vocal Physiology, and Dictionary of Sounds, Etc. London: Hamilton & Adams.Google Scholar
Bird, S., Caldecott, M., Campbell, F., Gick, B. & Shaw, P. A. (2008). Oral–laryngeal timing in glottalised resonants. Journal of Phonetics, 36(3), 492–507.Google Scholar
Blevins, J. (2003). The phonology of Yurok glottalized sonorants: Segmental fission under syllabification. International Journal of American Linguistics, 69(4), 371–96.Google Scholar
Browman, C. P. & Goldstein, L. (1988). Some notes on syllable structure in Articulatory Phonology. Phonetica, 45(2–4), 140–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Browman, C. P. & Goldstein, L. M. (1989). Articulatory gestures as phonological units. Phonology, 6(2), 201–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, C. P. & Goldstein, L. M. (1990). Gestural specification using dynamically-defined articulatory structures. Journal of Phonetics, 18(3), 299–320.Google Scholar
Browman, C. P. & Goldstein, L. M. (1992). Articulatory Phonology: An overview. Phonetica, 49(3–4), 155–80.Google Scholar
Browman, C. P. & Goldstein, L. (1995). Dynamics and Articulatory Phonology. In van Gelder, T. & Port, B., eds., Mind as Motion: Explorations in the Dynamics of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 175–93.Google Scholar
Browman, C. P. & Goldstein, L. M. (2000). Competing constraints on intergestural coordination and self-organization of phonological structures. Bulletin de la Communication Parlée, 5, 25–34.Google Scholar
Brown, L. (2001). A Grammar of Nias Selatan. PhD thesis, University of Sydney.Google Scholar
Brücke, E. (1856). Grundzüge der Physiologie und Systematik der Sprachlaute für Linguisten und Traub-Stummenlehrer. Vienna: Carl Gerold.Google Scholar
Butcher, A. (2004). ‘Fortis/lenis’ revisited one more time: The aerodynamics of some oral stop contrasts in three continents. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 18(6–8), 547–57.Google Scholar
Byrd, D., Tobin, S., Bresch, E. & Narayanan, S. (2009). Timing effects of syllable structure and stress on nasals: A real-time MRI examination. Journal of Phonetics, 37, 97–110.Google Scholar
Carignan, C., Shosted, R. K., Fu, M., Liang, Z.-P. & Sutton, B. P. (2015). A real-time MRI investigation of the role of lingual and pharyngeal articulation in the production of the nasal vowel system of French. Journal of Phonetics, 50, 34–51.Google Scholar
Catford, J. & Esling, J. (2006). Phonetics, articulatory. In Brown, K., ed., Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 425–42.Google Scholar
Catford, J. C. (1939). On the classification of stop consonants. Le Maître Phonétique, 65, 2–5.Google Scholar
Catford, J. C. (1964). Phonation types: The classification of some laryngeal components of speech production. In Abercrombie, D., ed., In Honour of Daniel Jones. London: Longman, pp. 26–37.Google Scholar
Chafe, W. L. (1960). Seneca morphology I: Introduction. International Journal of American Linguistics, 26(1), 11–22.Google Scholar
Chen, W.-R., Chang, Y.-C. & Iskarous, K. (2015). Vowel coarticulation: Landmark statistics measure vowel aggression. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 138(2), 1221–32.Google Scholar
Chiba, T. & Kajiyama, M. (1941). The Vowel: Its Nature and Structure. Tokyo: Kaseikan.Google Scholar
Chitoran, I. (2002). A perception-production study of Romanian diphthongs and glide-vowel sequences. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 32/2, 203–22.Google Scholar
Cho, T., Jun, S.-A. & Ladefoged, P. (2002). Acoustic and aerodynamic correlates of Korean stops and fricatives. Journal of Phonetics, 30(2), 193–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. & Halle, M. (1968). The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Cohn, A. C., Ham, W. H., & Podesva, R. J. (1999). The phonetic realization of singleton-geminate contrasts in three languages of Indonesia. In In J. J. Ohala, Y. Hasegawa, M. Ohala, D. Granville & A. C. Bailey, eds., Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Vol. 1, pp. 587–590). Berkeley, CA: ICPhS.Google Scholar
Colarusso, J. (1992). How many consonants does Ubykh have? In Hewitt, G., ed., Caucasian Perspectives. Munich: Lincom Europa, pp. 145–56.Google Scholar
Cooke, M., Barker, J., Cunningham, S. & Shao, X. (2006). An audio-visual corpus for speech perception and automatic speech recognition. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 120(5), 2421–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coulmas, F., ed. (1999). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, F. & Fletcher, J. (2017). Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dart, S. N. (1987). An aerodynamic study of Korean stop consonants: Measurements and modeling. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 81(1), 138–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Jong, K. (1998). Stress-related variation in the articulation of coda alveolar stops: Flapping revisited. Journal of Phonetics, 26(3), 283–310.Google Scholar
Delattre, P. & Freeman, D. C. (1968). A dialect study of American r’s by X-ray motion picture. Linguistics, 44, 29–68.Google Scholar
Demolin, D. (1995). The phonetics and phonology of glottalized consonants in Lendu. In Connell, B., Arvaniti, A., Kingston, J., Connell, B., Arvaniti, A. & Kingston, J., eds., Phonology and Phonetic Evidence: Papers in Laboratory Phonology IV. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 368–85.Google Scholar
Derrick, D. & Gick, B. (2011). Individual variation in English flaps and taps: A case of categorical phonetics. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique, 56(3), 307–19.Google Scholar
DiCanio, C. T. (2012). The phonetics of fortis and lenis consonants in Itunyoso Trique. International Journal of American Linguistics, 78(2), 239–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diehl, R. (1989). Remarks on Steven’s quantal theory of speech. Journal of Phonetics, 17(1–2), 71–8.Google Scholar
Elliott, R. W. V. (1954). Isaac Newton as phonetician. The Modern Language Review, 49(1), 5–12.Google Scholar
Ernestus, M. (2014). Acoustic reduction and the roles of abstractions and exemplars in speech processing. Lingua, 142, 27–41.Google Scholar
Esling, J. H. (2010). Phonetic notation. In Hardcastle, W. J., Laver, J. & Gibbon, F. E., eds., The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 678–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Esling, J. H. & Harris, J. G. (2005). States of the glottis: An articulatory phonetic model based on laryngoscopic observations. In Hardcastle, W. J. and & Beck, J. M., eds., A Figure of Speech: A Festschrift for John Laver. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Esling, J. H., Fraser, K. E. & Harris, J. G. (2005). Glottal stop, glottalized resonants, and pharyngeals: A reinterpretation with evidence from a laryngoscopic study of Nuuchahnulth (Nootka). Journal of Phonetics, 33(4), 383–410.Google Scholar
Espy-Wilson, C. Y., Boyce, S. E., Jackson, M., Narayanan, S. & Alwan, A. (2000). Acoustic modeling of American English /r/. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 108(1), 343–56.Google Scholar
Everett, D. L. (1986). Pirahã. In Derbyshire, D. C. & Pullum, G. K., eds., Handbook of Amazonian Languages, vol. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 200–326.Google Scholar
Ewan, W. G. & Krones, R. (1974). Measuring larynx movement using the thyroumbrometer. Journal of Phonetics, 2, 327–35.Google Scholar
Fant, G. (1960). Acoustic Theory of Speech Production, with Calculations Based on X-ray Studies of Russian Articulations. s’Gravenhage: Mouton.Google Scholar
Firchow, I. & Firchow, J. (1969). An abbreviated phoneme inventory.Anthropological Linguistics, 11, 271–6.Google Scholar
Flemming, E., Ladefoged, P. & Thomason, S. (2008). Phonetic structures of Montana Salish. Journal of Phonetics, 36(3), 465–91.Google Scholar
Fletcher, S. G. & Newman, D. G. (1991). [s] and [ʃ] as a function of linguapalatal contact place and sibilant groove width. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 89(2), 850–8.Google Scholar
Foulkes, P. & Docherty, G. (2006). The social life of phonetics and phonology. Journal of Phonetics, 34(4), 409–38.Google Scholar
Fowler, C. A. (1994). Invariants, specifiers, cues: An investigation of locus equations as information for place of articulation. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 55(6), 597–610.Google Scholar
Fowler, C. A. (2005). Parsing coarticulated speech in perception: Effects of coarticulation resistance. Journal of Phonetics, 33(2), 199–213.Google Scholar
Fu, M., Zhao, B., Carignan, C., Shosted, R. K., Perry, J. L., Kuehn, D. P. et al. (2015). High-resolution dynamic speech imaging with joint low-rank and sparsity constraints. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 73(5), 1820–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fu, M., Barlaz, M. S., Holtrop, J. L., Perry, J. L., Kuehn, D. P., Shosted, R. K. et al. (2017). High-frame-rate full-vocal tract 3D dynamic speech imaging. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 77(4), 1619–29.Google Scholar
Gick, B. (2002). The use of ultrasound for linguistic phonetic fieldwork. Journal of the International Phonetics Association, 32(2), 113–21.Google Scholar
Gick, B. & Campbell, F. (2003). Intergestural timing in English /r/. In Proceedings of the 15th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, pp. 1911–14.Google Scholar
Gick, B., Iskarous, K., Whalen, D. H. & Goldstein, L. M. (2003). Constraints on variations in the production of English /r/. In Proceedings of the 6th International Seminar on Speech Production, Sydney: ISSP, pp. 73–78.Google Scholar
Gick, B., Wilson, I. & Derrick, D. (2012). Articulatory Phonetics. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Giles, S. B. & Moll, K. L. (1975). Cinefluorographic study of selected allophones of English /l/. Phonetica, 31(3–4), 206–27.Google Scholar
Gobl, C. (2010). Voice source variation and its communicative functions. In Hardcastle, W. J., Laver, J. & Gibbon, F. E., eds., The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, vol. 1, 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 378–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gobl, C. & Chasaide, A. N. (2003). The role of voice quality in communicating emotion, mood and attitude. Speech Communication, 40, 189–212.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L. & Fowler, C. A. (2003). Articulatory Phonology: A phonology for public language use. In Schiller, N. O. and & Meyer, A. S., eds., Phonetics and Phonology in Language Comprehension and Production: Differences and Similarities. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 159–207.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L., Chitoran, I. & Selkirk, E. (2007). Syllable structure as coupled oscillator modes: Evidence from Georgian vs. Tashlhiyt Berber. In Proc. XVIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, pp. 241–4.Google Scholar
Gordon, M. & Ladefoged, P. (2001). Phonation types: A cross-linguistic overview. Journal of Phonetics, 29(4), 383–406.Google Scholar
Gordon, M. K. (2016). Phonological Typology, vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Grawunder, S., Simpson, A. P. & Khalilov, M. (2010). Phonetic characteristics of ejectives–samples from Caucasian languages. In Fuchs, S., Toda, M. & Żygis, M., eds., Turbulent Sounds: An Interdisciplinary Guide. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 209–44.Google Scholar
Guenther, F. H. (2016). Neural Control of Speech. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Guenther, F. H., Espy-Wilson, C. Y., Boyce, S. E., Matthies, M. L., Zandipour, M. & Perkell, J. S. (1999). Articulatory tradeoffs reduce acoustic variability during American English /r/ production. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105(5), 2854–65.Google Scholar
Güldemann, T. (2001). Phonological regularities of consonant systems across Khoisan lineages. University of Leipzig Papers on Africa, 16, 1–50.Google Scholar
Hagiwara, R. (1994). Three types of American /r/. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics, pp. 55–62.Google Scholar
Ham, W. H. (2001). Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Geminate Timing. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hankamer, J., Lahiri, A. & Koreman, J. (1989). Perception of consonant length: Voiceless stops in Turkish and Bengali. Journal of Phonetics, 17(4), 283–98.Google Scholar
Hanson, H. M., Stevens, K. N., Kuo, H.-K. J., Chen, M. Y. & Slifka, J. (2001). Towards models of phonation. Journal of Phonetics, 29(4), 451–80.Google Scholar
Harrison, K. D. (2008). When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World’s Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hay, J. (2004). Causes and Consequences of Word Structure. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hay, J. & Drager, K. (2007). Sociophonetics. Annual Review of Anthropology, 36, 89–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henton, C., Ladefoged, P. & Maddieson, I. (1992). Stops in the world’s languages. Phonetica, 49(2), 65–101.Google Scholar
Hermes, A., Grice, M., Mücke, D. & Niemann, H. (2008). Articulatory indicators of syllable affiliation in word initial consonant clusters in Italian. In Sock, R., Fuchs, S. & Laprie, Y., eds., Proceedings of the 8th International Seminar on Speech Production. Strasbourg, France: INRIA, pp. 433–6.Google Scholar
Heselwood, B., Hassan, Z. M. & Jones, M. J. (2013). Historical overview of phonetics. In Jones, M. J. and Knight, R.-A., eds., The Bloomsbury Companion to Phonetics. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 5–20.Google Scholar
Hoole, P. (1998). Do airstream mechanisms influence tongue movement paths? Phonetica, 55(3), 131–46.Google Scholar
Hoole, P. & Pouplier, M. (2017). Öhman returns: New horizons in the collection and analysis of imaging data in speech production research. Computer Speech & Language, 45 (Supplement C), 253–77.Google Scholar
Hualde, J. I. (2005). The Sounds of Spanish. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hueber, T., Aversano, G., Cholle, G., Denby, B., Dreyfus, G., Oussar, Y. et al. (2007). Eigentongue feature extraction for an ultrasound-based silent speech interface. In IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing – ICASSP07, I-1245– I-1248.Google Scholar
Idemaru, K. & Guion, S. G. (2008). Acoustic covariants of length contrast in Japanese stops. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38(2), 167–86.Google Scholar
Iskarous, K. (2006). The articulation of the palatal gesture in American English [r]. In Yehia, H., Demolin, D. & Laboissiere, R., eds., Proceedings of the 7th International Seminar on Speech Production (ISSP), Ubatuba. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, pp. 341–8.Google Scholar
Iskarous, K., Fowler, C. A. & Whalen, D. H. (2010). Locus equations are an acoustic expression of articulator synergy. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 128(4), 2021–32.Google Scholar
Iskarous, K., Shadle, C. H. & Proctor, M. I. (2011). Articulatory–acoustic kinematics: The production of American English /s/. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 129(2), 944–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Israel, A., Proctor, M., Goldstein, L., Iskarous, K. & Narayanan, S. S. (2012). Emphatic segments and emphasis spread in Lebanese Arabic: a Real-time Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. In Proc. Int’l Conf. on Speech Communication and Technology, Portland, OR, pp. 2178–81.Google Scholar
Jespersen, O. (1889). The Articulations of Speech Sounds Represented by Means of Analphabetic Symbols. Marburg in Hessen: NG Elwert.Google Scholar
Johnson, K. (2011). Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics, 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Johnson, K. & Mullennix, J. W. (1997). Speech perception without speaker normalization: AN exemplar model. In Johnson, K. & Mullennix, J. W., eds., Talker Variability in Speech Processing. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 145–66.Google Scholar
Kang, Y. (2014). Voice Onset Time merger and development of tonal contrast in Seoul Korean stops: A corpus study. Journal of Phonetics, 45, 76–90.Google Scholar
Katsamanis, A., Black, M., Georgiou, P., Goldstein, L. & Narayanan, S. (2011). SailAlign: Robust long speech-text alignment. In Proc. Workshop on New Tools and Methods for Very-Large Scale Phonetics Research. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, pp. 44–7.Google Scholar
Kelso, J. S., Tuller, B. & Harris, K. S. (1983). A ‘dynamic pattern’ perspective on the control and coordination of movement. In MacNeilage, P. F., ed., The Production of Speech. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 137–73.Google Scholar
Kemp, J. A. (2006). Phonetic transcription: History. In Brown, K., ed., Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 396–410.Google Scholar
Khan, S., Esposito, C. M. & Hurst, A. (2007). Breathy nasals and /Nh/ clusters in Bengali, Hindi, and Marathi. Indian Linguistics, 68, 275.Google Scholar
Kim, C.-W. (1965). On the autonomy of the tensity feature in stop classification (with special reference to Korean stops). Word, 21(3), 339–59.Google Scholar
Kim, H., Honda, K. & Maeda, S. (2005). Stroboscopic-cine MRI study of the phasing between the tongue and the larynx in the Korean three-way phonation contrast. Journal of Phonetics, 33(1), 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiparsky, P. (1991). Economy and the construction of the Sivasutras. In Deshpande, M. & Bhate, S., eds., Paninian Studies. S. D. Joshi Felicitation Volume. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for South Asian Studies, University of Michigan, pp. 239–61.Google Scholar
Kirchner, R. (2000). Geminate inalterability and lenition. Language, 76(3), 509–45.Google Scholar
Krakow, R. A. (1999). Physiological organization of syllables: A review. Journal of Phonetics, 27(1), 23–54.Google Scholar
Kühnert, B., Hoole, P. & Mooshammer, C. (2006). Gestural overlap and C-center in selected French consonant clusters. In Yehia, H., Demolin, D. & Laboissiere, R., eds., Proceedings of the 7th International Seminar on Speech Production (ISSP). Ubatuba. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, pp. 327–34.Google Scholar
Kuperman, V., Pluymaekers, M., Ernestus, M. & Baayen, H. (2007). Morphological predictability and acoustic duration of interfixes in Dutch compounds. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 121(4), 2261–71.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. (1968). A Phonetic Study of West African Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. (2005). Vowels and Consonants, 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. & Johnson, K. (2014). A Course in Phonetics, 7th ed. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. & Maddieson, I. (1996). The Sounds of the World’s Languages. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P. & Traill, A. (1994). Clicks and their accompaniments. Journal of Phonetics, 22, 33–64.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P., Williamson, K. & Elugbe, B. U. (1976). The stops of Owerri Igbo. Studies in African Linguistics, 7, 147–63.Google Scholar
Ladefoged, P., Cochran, A. & Disner, S. (1977). Laterals and trills. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 7(2), 46–54.Google Scholar
Lammert, A., Goldstein, L., Narayanan, S. & Iskarous, K. (2013). Statistical methods for estimation of direct and differential kinematics of the vocal tract. Speech Communication, 55(1), 147–61.Google Scholar
Lancia, L., Voigt, D. & Krasovitskiy, G. (2016). Characterization of laryngealization as irregular vocal fold vibration and interaction with prosodic prominence. Journal of Phonetics, 54(Supplement C), 80–97.Google Scholar
Laver, J. (1980). The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Laver, J. (1994). Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Laver, J. D. (1968). Voice quality and indexical information. British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 3(1), 43–54.Google Scholar
Lepsius, C. R. (1863). Standard Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform Orthography in European Letters, 2nd ed. London: Williams & Norgate.Google Scholar
Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D. P. & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1967). Perception of the speech code. Psychological Review, 74(6), 431.Google Scholar
Lindau, M. (1984). Phonetic differences in glottalic consonants. Journal of Phonetics, 12, 147–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindblom, B. & Engstrand, O. (1989). In what sense is speech quantal? Journal of Phonetics, 17(1–2), 107–21.Google Scholar
Lindblom, B. & Maddieson, I. (1988). Phonetic universals in consonant systems. In Hyman, L. M. & Li., C. N., eds., Language, Speech, and Mind: Studies in Honour of Victoria A. Fromkin. London: Routledge, pp. 62–78.Google Scholar
Lindblom, B. & Sussman, H. M. (2012). Dissecting coarticulation: How locus equations happen. Journal of Phonetics, 40(1), 1–19.Google Scholar
Lindblom, B., MacNeilage, P. & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1983). Self-organizing processes and the explanation of phonological universals. Linguistics, 21(1), 181–204.Google Scholar
Lingala, S. G., Zhu, Y., Kim, Y.-C., Toutios, A., Narayanan, S. & Nayak, K. S. (2017). A fast and flexible MRI system for the study of dynamic vocal tract shaping. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 77(1), 112–25.Google Scholar
Lisker, L. & Abramson, A. (1964). A cross-language study of voicing in initial stops: Acoustical measurements. Word, 20, 384–422.Google Scholar
Loos, E. E., Anderson, S., Day, D. H., Jordan, P. C. & Wingate, J. D. (2004). Glossary of Linguistic Terms, vol. 29. Dallas, TX: SIL International.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. (1980). Phonological generalizations from the UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database (UPSID). UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics, 50, 57–68.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. (1992). UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. (2013a). Consonant inventories. In Dryer, M. S. & Haspelmath, M., eds., The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Available online at http://wals.info/chapter/1, accessed on 11 August 2020).Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. (2013b). Glottalized consonants. In Dryer, M. S. & Haspelmath, M., eds., The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Available online at http://wals.info/chapter/7, accessed on 11 August 2020.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. & Emmorey, K. (1984). Is there a valid distinction between voiceless lateral approximants and fricatives? Phonetica, 41(4), 181–90.Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. & Emmorey, K. (1985). Relationship between semivowels and vowels: Cross-linguistic investigations of acoustic difference and coarticulation. Phonetica, 42(4), 163–74.Google Scholar
Marin, S. & Pouplier, M. (2010). Temporal organization of complex onsets and codas in American English: Testing the predictions of a gestural coupling model. Motor Control, 14(3), 380–407.Google Scholar
Marin, S. & Pouplier, M. (2014). Articulatory synergies in the temporal organization of liquid clusters in Romanian. Journal of Phonetics, 42, 24–36.Google Scholar
McDonough, J. & Wood, V. (2008). The stop contrasts of the Athabaskan languages. Journal of Phonetics, 36(3), 427–49.Google Scholar
McGowan, R. S. (1992). Tongue-tip trills and vocal-tract wall compliance. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 91(5), 2903–10.Google Scholar
McGowan, R. S. & Howe, M. S. (2007). Compact green’s functions extend the acoustic theory of speech production. Journal of Phonetics, 35(2), 259–70.Google Scholar
McQueen, J. M., Cutler, A. & Norris, D. (2006). Phonological abstraction in the mental lexicon. Cognitive Science, 30(6), 1113–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mielke, J. (2007). P-base. http://pbase.phon.chass.ncsu.edu/.Google Scholar
Mielke, J. (2008). The Emergence of Distinctive Features. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mielke, J., Baker, A. & Archangeli, D. (2016). Individual-level contact limits phonological complexity: Evidence from bunched and retroflex /r/. Language, 92(1), 101–40.Google Scholar
Miller, A. (2010). Tongue body and tongue root shape differences in N|uu clicks correlate with phonotactic patterns. In Fuchs, S., Toda, M. & Żygis, M., eds., Turbulent sounds. An interdisciplinary guide. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 245–80.Google Scholar
Miller, A. L. (2011). The representation of clicks. In van Oostendorp, M., Ewen, C. J., Hume, E. & Rice, K., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, vol. 1, chap. 18. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 416–39.Google Scholar
Mohammed, M. A. (2001). Modern Swahili Grammar. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers.Google Scholar
Moisik, S. R. & Esling, J. H. (2014). Modeling the biomechanical influence of epilaryngeal stricture on the vocal folds: A low-dimensional model of vocal–ventricular fold coupling. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57(2), S687–S704.Google Scholar
Moisik, S. R., Esling, J. H. & Crevier-Buchman, L. (2010). A high-speed laryngoscopic investigation of aryepiglottic trilling. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 127(3), 1548–58.Google Scholar
Monnot, M. & Freeman, M. (1972). A comparison of Spanish single-tap /r/ with American /t/ and /d/ in post-stress intervocalic position. In Valdman, A., ed., Papers in Linguistics and Phonetics to the Memory of Pierre Delattre. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 409–16.Google Scholar
Moran, S., McCloy, D. & Wright, R., eds. (2019). PHOIBLE Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Available online at http://phoible.org, accessed on 11 August 2020.Google Scholar
Muller, J. S. (2002). On the theoretical implications of Cypriot Greek initial geminates. Journal of Greek Linguistics, 3(1), 115–37.Google Scholar
Munhall, K. G., Ostry, D. J. & Parush, A. (1985). Characteristics of velocity profiles of speech movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 11(4), 457.Google Scholar
Nakagawa, H. (2006). Aspects of the Phonetic and Phonological Structure of the G|ui language, PhD thesis, University of the Witwatersrand.Google Scholar
Nam, H., Goldstein, L., Browman, C., Rubin, P., Proctor, M. & Saltzman, E. (2006). TADA (TAsk Dynamics Application) Manual. Available online at https://haskinslabs.org/research/features-and-demos/tada-task-dynamic-model-inter-articulator-speech-coordination, accessed on 11 August 2020.Google Scholar
Narayanan, S., Byrd, D. & Kaun, A. (1999). Geometry, kinematics, and acoustics of Tamil liquid consonants. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 106(4), 1993–2007.Google Scholar
Narayanan, S., Toutios, A., Ramanarayanan, V., Lammert, A., Kim, J., Lee, S. et al. (2014). Real-time magnetic resonance imaging and electromagnetic articulography database for speech production research (TC). Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 136(3), 1307–11.Google Scholar
Nash, D. (1980). Topics in Warlpiri Grammar. New York: Garland Press.Google Scholar
Nichols, T. R. & Huyghues-Despointes, C. M. J. I. (2009). Muscular stiffness. In Binder, M. D., Hirokawa, N. & Windhorst, U., eds., Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Berlin: Springer, pp. 2515–19.Google Scholar
Niebergall, A., Zhang, S., Kunay, E., Keydana, G., Job, M., Uecker, M. et al. (2013). Real-time MRI of speaking at a resolution of 33 ms: Undersampled radial FLASH with nonlinear inverse reconstruction. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 69(2), 477–85.Google Scholar
Nieto-Castanon, A., Guenther, F. H., Perkell, J. S. & Curtin, H. D. (2005). A modeling investigation of articulatory variability and acoustic stability during American English /r/ production. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 117(5), 3196–212.Google Scholar
Nolan, F., Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, et al. (1999). Introduction to the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetics Association, 25(1), 3–33.Google Scholar
Ohala, J. J. (1975). Phonetic explanations for nasal sound patterns. In Ferguson, C. A., Hyman, L. M. & Ohala, J. J., eds., Nasalfest: Papers from a Symposium on Nasals and Nasalization. Stanford, CA: Language Universals Project, pp. 289–316.Google Scholar
Ohala, J. J. (1981). The listener as a source of sound change. In Masek, C. S., Hendrick, R. A. & Miller, M. F., eds., Papers from the Parasession on Language and Behavior, Chicago Linguistic Society, May 1–2, 1981. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, pp. 178–203.Google Scholar
Ohala, J. J. (1983). The origin of sound patterns in vocal tract constraints. In MacNeilage, P. F., ed., The Production of Speech, chap. 9. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 189–216.Google Scholar
Olson, K. (2004). Acoustic Correlates of the Labial Flap. Paper presented at the 78th Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, January 2004, Boston, MA.Google Scholar
Oquendo, L. (2004). La vibrant uvular y la approximate labiodental en la lengua japreria como cultura fonológica. Opción, 20(45), 60–74.Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, J. (2001). Exemplar dynamics: Word frequency, lenition, and contrast. In Bybee, J. L. and & Hopper, P., eds., Frequency and the Emergence of Linguistic Structure. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 137–57.Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, J. (2002). Word-specific phonetics. In Gussenhoven, C. & Warner, N., eds., Laboratory Phonology, vol. 7. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 101–39.Google Scholar
Pinho, C. M., Jesus, L. M. & Barney, A. (2012). Weak voicing in fricative production. Journal of Phonetics, 40(5), 625–38.Google Scholar
Pinkerton, S. (1986). Quichean (Mayan) glottalized and nonglottalized stops: A phonetic study with implications for phonological universals. In Ohala, J. & Jaeger, J., eds., Experimental Phonology. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, pp. 125–39.Google Scholar
Podesva, R. J. & Callier, P. (2015). Voice quality and identity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 173–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pouplier, M. & Beňuš, Š. (2011). On the phonetic status of syllabic consonants: Evidence from Slovak. Laboratory Phonology, 2(2), 243–73.Google Scholar
Prince, A. & Smolensky, P. (2008). Syllable structure typology: The CV theory. In McCarthy, J. J., ed., Optimality Theory in Phonology: A Reader. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 105–18.Google Scholar
Proctor, M. & Walker, R. (2012). Articulatory bases of English liquids. In Parker, S., ed., The Sonority Controversy, vol. 18 of Studies in Generative Grammar. Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 285–312.Google Scholar
Proctor, M. I., Shadle, C. H. & Iskarous, K. (2010). Pharyngeal articulation differences in voiced and voiceless fricatives. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 127(3), 1507–18.Google Scholar
Proctor, M., Bresch, E., Byrd, D., Nayak, K. & Narayanan, S. (2013). Paralinguistic mechanisms of production in human ‘beatboxing’: A realtime magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 133(2), 1043–54.Google Scholar
Proctor, M., Zhu, Y., Lammert, A., Toutios, A., Sands, B., Hummel, U. & Narayanan, S. (2016). Lingual consonant production in Khoekhoe: A real-time MRI study. In Shah, S. & Brenzinger, M., eds., Khoisan Languages and Linguistics – Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium, July 13–17, 2014, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, pp. 337–66.Google Scholar
Ramanarayanan, V., Parrell, B., Goldstein, L., Nagarajan, S. & Houde, J. (2016). A new model of speech motor control based on task dynamics and state feedback. In Proc. Int’l Conf. on Speech Communication and Technology, pp. 3564–8.Google Scholar
Recasens, D. (1983). Place cues for nasal consonants with special reference to Catalan. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 73(4), 1346–53.Google Scholar
Remez, R. E., Rubin, P. E., Pisoni, D. B. & Carrell, T. D. (1981). Speech perception without traditional speech cues. Science, 212(4497), 947–9.Google Scholar
Remijsen, B. & Gilley, L. (2008). Why are three-level vowel length systems rare? Insights from Dinka (Luanyjang dialect). Journal of Phonetics, 36(2), 318–44.Google Scholar
Ridouane, R. (2008). Syllables without vowels: Phonetic and phonological evidence from Tashlhiyt Berber. Phonology, 25(2), 321–59.Google Scholar
Ridouane, R. (2010). Geminates at the junction of phonetics and phonology. Laboratory Phonology, 10, 61–90.Google Scholar
Roon, K., Gafos, A. I., Hoole, P. & Zeroual, C. (2007). Influence of articulator and manner on stiffness. In Proc. Int’l. Congress on Phonetic Sciences, pp. 409–12.Google Scholar
Saltzman, E. L. & Munhall, K. G. (1989). A dynamical approach to gestural patterning in speech production. Ecological Psychology, 1(4), 333–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schutz, A. J. (1980). A reanalysis of the Hawaiian vowel system. Oceanic Linguistics, 20, 1–43.Google Scholar
Scobbie, J. M. & Pouplier, M. (2010). The role of syllable structure in external sandhi: An EPG study of vocalisation and retraction in word-final English /l/. Journal of Phonetics, 38(2), 240–59.Google Scholar
Shadle, C. H. (1990). Articulatory–acoustic relationships in fricative consonants. In Hardcastle, W. J. & Marchal, A., eds., Speech Production and Speech Modelling, vol. 55. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher, pp. 187–209.Google Scholar
Shadle, C. (1999). The aerodynamics of speech. In Hardcastle, W. J. & Laver, J., eds., The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, pp. 33–64.Google Scholar
Shaw, J., Gafos, A., Hoole, P. & Zeroual, C. (2009). Temporal evidence for syllabic structure in Moroccan Arabic: Data and model. Phonology, 26(1), 187–215.Google Scholar
Shosted, R. K. (2006). The Aeroacoustics of Nasalized Fricatives, Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Simons, G. F. & Fennig, C. D., eds. (2017). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 20th ed. Dallas: SIL International, www.ethnologue.com.Google Scholar
Smith, C. L. (1993). The Timing of Vowel and Consonant Gestures. PhD thesis, Yale University.Google Scholar
Snyman, J. W. (1975). Zhu/’hõasi fonologie & woordeboek. Cape Town: A.A. Balkema; University of Cape Town.Google Scholar
Solé, M.-J. (2002). Aerodynamic characteristics of trills and phonological patterning. Journal of Phonetics, 30(4), 655–88.Google Scholar
Son, M.-J., Kim, S.-H. & Cho, T.-H. (2011). Supralaryngeal articulatory characteristics of coronal consonants in Korean. Journal of the Korean Society of Speech Sciences, 3(4), 33–43.Google Scholar
Sproat, R. & Fujimura, O. (1993). Allophonic variation in English /l/ and its implications for phonetic implementation. Journal of Phonetics, 21(3), 291–311.Google Scholar
Stevens, K. N. (1971). Airflow and turbulence noise for fricative and stop consonants: Static considerations. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 50(4B), 1180–92.Google Scholar
Stevens, K. N. (1977). Physics of laryngeal behavior and larynx modes. Phonetica, 34(4), 264–79.Google Scholar
Stevens, K. N. (1989). On the quantal nature of speech. Journal of Phonetics, 17(1–2), 3–45.Google Scholar
Stevens, K. N. (1998). Acoustic Phonetics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Stevens, K. N. (2004). Invariance and variability in speech: Interpreting acoustic evidence. In Slifka, J., Manuel, S. & Mathies, M., eds., From Sound to Sense: 50+ Years of Discoveries in Speech Communication. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 77–B85.Google Scholar
Stevens, K. N. & Blumstein, S. E. (1978). Invariant cues for place of articulation in stop consonants. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 64(5), 1358–68.Google Scholar
Sussman, H. M. & Shore, J. (1996). Locus equations as phonetic descriptors of consonantal place of articulation. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 58(6), 936–46.Google Scholar
Sweet, H. (1877). A Handbook of Phonetics, vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Tillmann, H. (2006). Experimental and instrumental phonetics: History. In Brown, K., ed., Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 374–89.Google Scholar
Tilsen, S. & Goldstein, L. (2012). Articulatory gestures are individually selected in production. Journal of Phonetics, 40(6), 764–79.Google Scholar
Titze, I. R. & Story, B. H. (1997). Acoustic interactions of the voice source with the lower vocal tract. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 101(4), 2234–43.Google Scholar
Toda, M. & Honda, K. (2003). An MRI-based cross-linguistic study of sibilant fricatives. In Palethorpe, S. & Tabain, M., eds., Proceedings of the 6th International Seminar on Speech Production. Sydney: Macquarie Centre for Cognitive Science, pp. 290–5.Google Scholar
Tourville, J. A. & Guenther, F. H. (2011). The diva model: A neural theory of speech acquisition and production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 26(7), 952–81.Google Scholar
Trubetzkoy, N. S. (1969). Principles of Phonology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Turpin, M., Ross, A. & Staff, I. P. (2012). Kaytetye to English Dictionary. Alice Springs: IAD Press.Google Scholar
Viswanathan, N., Magnuson, J. S. & Fowler, C. A. (2014). Information for coarticulation: Static signal properties or formant dynamics? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40(3), 1228.Google Scholar
Vogt, H. (1963). Dictionnaire de la langue oubykh: avec introduction phonologique, index français-oubykh, textes oubykhs. Oslo: Universitets forlaget.Google Scholar
Volney, Constantin-Fran (1795). Simplification des langues orientales. Paris: L’imprimerie de la République.Google Scholar
Wagner, K. O. C. & Baker-Smemoe, W. (2013). An investigation of the production of ejectives by native (L1) and second (L2) language speakers of Q’eqchi’ Mayan. Journal of Phonetics, 41(6), 453–67.Google Scholar
Westbury, J. R., Hashi, M. & Lindstrom, M. J. (1998). Differences among speakers in lingual articulation for American English /r/. Speech Communication, 26(3), 203–26.Google Scholar
Wilkins, J. (1668). An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language. London: Sa. Gellibrand.Google Scholar
Zawadzki, P. A. & Kuehn, D. P. (1980). A cineradiographic study of static and dynamic aspects of American English /r/. Phonetica, 37, 253–66.Google Scholar
Zhou, X., Espy-Wilson, C. Y., Boyce, S., Tiede, M., Holland, C. & Choe, A. (2008). A magnetic resonance imaging-based articulatory and acoustic study of ‘retroflex’ and ‘bunched’ American English /r/. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 123(6), 4466–81.Google Scholar
Zhu, Y., Kim, Y.-C., Proctor, M. I., Narayanan, S. & Nayak, K. S. (2013). Dynamic 3D visualization of vocal tract shaping during speech. IEEE Trans. Medical Imaging, 32(5), 838–48.Google Scholar
Zue, V. W. & Laferriere, M. (1979). Acoustic study of medial /t, d/ in American English. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 66(4), 1039–50.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×