Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-v2bm5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-12T10:47:04.210Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

17 - Curiosity

Nature, Dimensionality, and Determinants

from Part IV - Curiosity and Boredom

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 February 2019

K. Ann Renninger  and
Suzanne E. Hidi
By
Jordan Litman
K. Ann Renninger
Affiliation:
Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania
Suzanne E. Hidi
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Get access

Summary

Curiosity has been a popular subject of inquiry by psychological scientists for over a century. Nevertheless, its nature, dimensionality, and determinants all remain surprisingly poorly understood. While there is general agreement on a “broad strokes” understanding of curiosity as a desire for new knowledge, the precise character of that desire and the specific behaviors it may motivate continue to spark considerable disagreement and debate. In this chapter, I discuss both previous and contemporary theory and research on curiosity as a psychological construct. I describe curiosity in terms of two types: D-type and I-type. D-type curiosity is theorized to reflect an uncomfortable “need to know” that becomes increasingly bothersome until satisfied by obtaining the desired specific pieces of missing information. I-type curiosity is theorized to be a more relaxed “take it or leave it” attitude towards the discovery of new information, in which the aim is simply to have fun while learning. Qualitative differences between I-type and D-type curiosity experiences – being motivated either to induce situational interest or reduce situational uncertainty, respectively – are hypothesized to translate into significant quantifiable differences in the extent to which each type of curiosity energizes behavior. Specifically, D-type curiosity is hypothesized to be associated with both more intense levels of state-curiosity and greater persistence in subsequent information-seeking behavior as compared to I-type curiosity. Finally, future directions for research are discussed.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning , pp. 418 - 442
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ainley, M. D. (1987). The factor structure of curiosity measures: Breadth and depth of interest curiosity styles. Australian Journal of Psychology, 39, 53–9. doi: 10.1080/00049538708259035.Google Scholar
Anselme, P. (2015). Incentive salience attribution under reward uncertainty: A Pavlovian model. Behavioural Processes, 111, 6–18. doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.10.016.Google Scholar
Baranes, A., Oudeyer, P., & Gottlieb, J. (2015). Eye movements reveal epistemic curiosity in human observers. Vision Research, 117, 81–90. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2015.10.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benitez-Quiroz, C. F., Gökgöz, K., Wilbur, R. B., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Discriminant features and temporal structure of nonmanuals in American Sign Language. PLoS ONE, 9, e86268. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086268.Google Scholar
Berlyne, D. E. (1950). Novelty and curiosity as determinants of exploratory behavior. British Journal of Psychology, 41, 68–80.Google Scholar
Berlyne, D. E. (1960). Conflict, arousal, and curiosity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. doi: 10.1037/11164-000.Google Scholar
Berlyne, D. E. (1966). Curiosity and exploration. Science, 153, 25–33. doi: 10.1126/science.153.3731.25.Google Scholar
Berlyne, D. E. (1967). Arousal and reinforcement. In Levine, D. (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 1–110). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2004). Pleasure, unfelt affect, and irrational desire. In Manstead, A. S. R., Fischer, A. H., & Frijda, N. (Eds.), Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam symposium (pp. 43–62). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511806582.015.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2007). The debate over dopamine's role in reward: The case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology, 191, 391–431. doi: 10.1007/s00213-006-0578-x.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2009). Wanting and liking: Observations from the neuroscience and psychology laboratory. Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy, 52, 78–398. doi: 10.1080/00201740903087359.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2012). From prediction error to incentive salience: Mesolimbic computation of reward motivation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 1124–43. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. (1998). The role of dopamine in reward: Hedonics, learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews, 28, 308–67. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00019-8.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. (2003). Parsing reward. Trends in Neurosciences, 26, 507–13. doi: 10.1016/S0166-2236(03)00233-9.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. & Winkielman, P. (2003). What is an unconscious emotion? Cognition & Emotion, 17, 181–211. doi: 10.1080/02699930302289.Google Scholar
Biederman, I. & Vessel, E. A. (2006). Perceptual pleasure and the brain. American Scientist, 94, 249–255. doi: 10.1511/2006.59.995.Google Scholar
Brown, A. S. (1991). A review of the tip-of-the-tongue experience. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 204–23. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, R. & McNeill, D. (1966). The “tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, 325–37. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80040-3.Google Scholar
Burke, D. M. & James, L. E. (2000). Phonological priming effects on word retrieval and tip-of-the-tongue experiences in young and older adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 26, 1378–91. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.26.6.1378.Google Scholar
Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139174794.Google Scholar
Chater, N. & Loewenstein, G. (2016). The under-appreciated drive for sensemaking. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 126, 137–54. doi: 10.1016/j.jebo.2015.10.016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, A. & Vartanian, O. (2014). Neuroaesthetics. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 370–5. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.003.Google Scholar
Cloninger, S. (2009). Conceptual issues in personality theory. In Corr, P. J. & Matthews, G. (Eds.), The cambridge handbook of personality psychology (pp. 3–26). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511596544.004.Google Scholar
Collins, R. P., Litman, J. A., & Spielberger, C. D. (2004). The measurement of perceptual curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1127–41. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00205-8.Google Scholar
D'Mello, S. K. & Graesser, A. C. (2014). Confusion. In Pekrun, R. & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (Eds.), International handbook of emotions in education (pp. 289–310). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Day, H. I. (1971). The measurement of specific curiosity. In Day, H. I., Berlyne, D. E., & Hunt, D. E. (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation: A new direction in education (pp. 99–112). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Dember, W. N. (1960). The psychology of perception. New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co.Google Scholar
Dember, W. N. & Earl, R. W. (1957). Analysis of exploratory, manipulatory, and curiosity behaviors. Psychological Review, 64, 91–6. doi: 10.1037/h0046861.Google Scholar
Efklides, A. (2006). Metacognition and affect: What can metacognitive experiences tell us about the learning process? Educational Research Review, 1, 3–14. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2005.11.001.Google Scholar
Efklides, A. (2009). The role of metacognitive experiences in the learning process. Psicothema, 21, 76–82.Google Scholar
Efklides, A. (2011). Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affect in self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist, 46, 6–25 doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.538645.Google Scholar
Elliott, E. A. & Jacobs, A. M. (2013). Facial expressions, emotions, and sign languages, Frontiers in Psychology, 1–4. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00115.Google Scholar
Fowler, H. (1967). Satiation and curiosity: Constructs for a drive and incentive-motivational theory of exploration. In Spence, K. W. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 1, pp. 157–227). New York, NY: Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60514-9.Google Scholar
Frenkel-Brunswick, E. (1949). Tolerance toward ambiguity as a personality variable. American Psychologist, 3, 268.Google Scholar
Furnham, A. & Marks, J. (2013). Tolerance of ambiguity: A review of the recent literature. Psychology, 4, 717–28. doi: 10.4236/psych.2013.49102.Google Scholar
Gerbing, D. W. & Anderson, J. C. (1988). An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 25, 186–192. doi: 10.2307/3172650.Google Scholar
Görlitz, D. (1987). Curiosity, imagination, and play: On the development of spontaneous cognitive and motivational processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, J., Oudeyer, P. Y., Lopes, M., and Baranes, A. (2013). Information seeking, curiosity, and attention: Computational and neural mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Science, 17, 585–593. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.001.Google Scholar
Grossnickle, E. M. (2014). Disentangling curiosity: Dimensionality, definitions, and distinctions from interest in educational contexts. Educational Psychology Review, 26, 1–38.Google Scholar
Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D. & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84, 486–496. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.060.Google Scholar
Han, C., Li, P., Warren, C., Feng, T., Litman, J., & Li, H. (2013). Electrophysiological evidence for the importance of interpersonal curiosity. Brain Research, 15, 45–54. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.12.046.Google Scholar
Hart, J. T. (1965). Memory and the feeling-of-knowing experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 208–216. doi: 10.1037/h0022263.Google Scholar
Henderson, B. & Moore, S. G. (1979). Measuring exploratory behavior in young children: A factor-analytic study. Developmental Psychology, 15, 113–19. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.15.2.113.Google Scholar
Herman, C. P. & Polivy, J. (2004). The self-regulation of eating: Theoretical and practical problems. In Baumeister, R. F. & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 492–508). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hidi, S., & Anderson, V. (1992). Situational interest and its impact on reading and expository writing. In Renninger, K. A., Hidi, S., & Krapp, A. (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 215–238). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Jepma, M., Verdonschot, R. G., van Steenbergen, H., Rombouts, S. A., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2012). Neural mechanisms underlying the induction and relief of perceptual curiosity. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 6, 1–9. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00005.Google Scholar
Jirout, J. & Klahr, D. (2012). Children's scientific curiosity: In search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. Developmental Review, 32, 125–160. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2012.04.002.Google Scholar
Jönsson, F. U. & Olsson, M. J. (2003). Olfactory metacognition. Chemical Senses, 28, 651–8. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjg058.Google Scholar
Kang, M. J., Hsu, M., Krajbich, I. M., Loewenstein, G., McClure, S. M., Wang, J. T., & Camerer, C. F. (2009). The wick in the candle of learning: Epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory. Psychological Science, 20, 963–973. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02402.x.Google Scholar
Kashdan, T. B. (2004). Curiosity. In Peterson, C. and Seligman, M. E. P. (Eds.), Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (pp. 125–41). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association and Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kashdan, T. B., Rose, P., & Fincham, F. D. (2004). Curiosity and exploration: Facilitating positive subjective experiences and personal growth opportunities. Journal of Personality Assessment, 82, 291–305. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8203_05.Google Scholar
Keller, H., Schneider, K., & Henderson, B. (1994). Curiosity and exploration. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-77132-3.Google Scholar
Kenza, B., Mohamed, B., & Hacene, B. (2015). Facial expressions of interest's emotion. Paper presented at the 2015 International Conference on Applied Research in Computer Science and Engineering (ICAR). Beirut. doi: 10.1109/ARCSE.2015.7338133.Google Scholar
Kidd, C. & Hayden, B. Y. (2015). The psychology and neuroscience of curiosity. Neuron, 88, 449–60. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, J. K. (1996). Reflections of thought: Cognitive facial expressions in the human interface. IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Communication, 195–200.Google Scholar
Koo, D.-M. & Choi, Y.-Y. (2010). Knowledge search and people with high epistemic curiosity. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 12–22. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.08.013.Google Scholar
Koriat, A. (1998). Metamemory: The feeling of knowing and its vagaries. In Sabourin, M. & Craik, F. (Eds.), Advances in psychological science, Vol. 2: biological and cognitive aspects (pp. 461–79). Hove: Psychology Press/Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Koriat, A. & Levy-Sadot, R. (1999). Processes underlying metacognitive judgment: Information-based and experience-based monitoring of one's own knowledge. In Chaiken, S. & Trope, Y. (Eds.), Dual-Process theories in social psychology (pp. 483–502). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Koriat, A. & Lieblich, I. (1974). What does a person in a “TOT” state know that a person in a “don't know” state doesn't know? Memory & Cognition, 2, 647–55. doi: 10.3758/BF03198134.Google Scholar
Kumar, P., Berghorst, L. H., Nickerson, L. D., Dutra, S. J., Goer, F. K., Greve, D. N., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2014). Differential effects of acute stress on anticipatory and consummatory phases of reward processing. Neuroscience 266, 1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.01.058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langevin, R. L. (1971). Is curiosity a unitary construct? Canadian Journal of Psychology, 25, 360–74. doi: 10.1037/h0082397.Google Scholar
Lauriola, M., Litman, J. A., Mussel, P., De Santis, R., Crowson, H. M., & Hoffman, R. R. (2015). Epistemic curiosity and self-regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 83, 202–7. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.017.Google Scholar
Leuba, C. (1955). Toward some integration of learning theories: The concept of optimal stimulation. Psychological Reports, 1, 27–33. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1955.1.g.27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Litman, J. A. (2005). Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 793–814. doi: 10.1080/02699930541000101.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. (2008). Interest and deprivation dimensions of epistemic curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 1585–95. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.014.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. (2010). Relationships between measures of I- and D-type curiosity, ambiguity tolerance, and need for closure: An initial test of the wanting-liking model of information-seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 397–402. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.005.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. (2012). Epistemic curiosity. In Norbert, S. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 1162–5). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A., Crowson, H. M., & Kolinski, K. (2010). Validity of the interest- and deprivation-type epistemic curiosity distinction in non-students. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 531–6. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.021.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A., Hutchins, T. L., & Russon, R.K. (2005). Epistemic curiosity, feeling-of-knowing, and exploratory behaviour. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 559–82. doi: 10.1080/02699930441000427.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. & Jimerson, T. L. (2004). The measurement of curiosity as a feeling-of-deprivation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 82, 147. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8202_3.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. & Mussel, P. (2013). Development and validation of German translations of interest- and deprivation-type epistemic curiosity scales. Journal of Individual Differences, 34, 59–68. doi: 10.1027/1614-0001/a000100.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. & Pezzo, M. V. (2007). Dimensionality of interpersonal curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1448–59. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.021.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. & Pezzo, M. V. (2012). Interpersonal curiosity. In: Norbert, S. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 1634–5). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A., Robinson, O. C., & Demetre, J. (2017). Intrapersonal curiosity: Inquisitiveness about the inner self. Self and Identity, 16, 231–250. doi: 10.1080/15298868.2016.1255250.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A., Russon, R. K., & Litman, N. M. (2017). The face of curiosity: An appraisal process approach. Institute of Human and Machine Cognition, Ocala, FL.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. & Silvia, P. J. (2006). The latent structure of trait curiosity: Evidence for interest and deprivation curiosity dimensions. Journal of Personality Assessment, 86, 318–28. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8603_07.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. & Spielberger, C. D. (2003). Measuring epistemic curiosity and its diversive and specific components. Journal of Personality Assessment, 80, 75–86. doi: 10.1207/S15327752JPA8001_16.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A. & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57, 705–17. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 75–98. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.75.Google Scholar
Lowe, M. R. & Butryn, M. L. (2007). Hedonic hunger: A new dimension of appetite? Physiology & Behavior, 91, 432–9. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.04.006.Google Scholar
Mahler, S. V. & Berridge, K. C. (2012). What and when to “want”? Amygdala-based focusing of incentive salience upon sugar and sex. Psychopharmacology, 221, 407–26. doi: 10.1007/s00213-011-2588-6.Google Scholar
Mangan, B. (2000). What feeling is the “feeling of knowing?” Consciousness and Cognition, 9, 538–44. doi: 10.1006/ccog.2000.0488.Google Scholar
Maril, A., Simons, J. S., Weaver, J. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2005). Graded recall success: An event-related fMRI comparison of tip-of-the-tongue and feeling-of-knowing. Neuroimage, 24, 1130–8. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.10.024.Google Scholar
Maril, A., Wagner, A., & Schacter, D. (2001). On the tip of the tongue: An event-related fMRI study of semantic retrieval failure and cognitive conflict. Neuron, 31, 653–60. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00396-8.Google Scholar
Markey, A. & Loewenstein, G. (2014) Curiosity. In Pekrun, R. & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (Eds.), International handbook of emotions and education (pp. 228–42). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Marvin, M. B. & Shohamy, D. (2016). Curiosity and reward: Valence predicts choice and information prediction errors enhance learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 266–72. doi: 10.1037/xge0000140.Google Scholar
McGillivray, S., Murayama, K., & Caste, A. D. (2015). Thirst for knowledge: The effects of curiosity and interest on memory in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 30, 835–41. doi: 10.1037/a0039801.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L., & Bloom, P. A. (2017). The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state and curiosity. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 2, 31–8.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J. & Wiebe, D. (1987). Intuition in insight and noninsight problem solving. Memory & Cognition, 15, 238–46. doi: 10.3758/BF03197722.Google Scholar
Miller, N. A. (1959). Liberalization of basic S-R concepts: Extensions to conflict behavior, motivation, and social learning. In Koch, S. (Ed.), Psychology: The study of a science (pp. 196–292). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Mullaney, K. M., Carpenter, S. K., Grotenhuis, C., & Burianek, S. (2014). Waiting for feedback helps if you want to know the answer: The role of curiosity in the delay-of-feedback benefit. Memory & Cognition, 42, 1273–84. doi: 10.3758/s13421-014-0441-y.Google Scholar
Mussel, P., Spengler, M., Litman, J. A., & Schuler, H. (2012). Development and validation of the German work-related curiosity scale. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 28, 109–17. doi: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000098.Google Scholar
Nguyen, T. D. & Ranganath, S. (2010). Facial expressions in American Sign Language: Tracking and recognition. Pattern Recognition, 4, 665–76.Google Scholar
Oudeyer, P. & Smith, L. B. (2016). How evolution may work through curiosity-driven developmental process. Topics in Cognitive Science, 8, 492–502. doi: 10.1111/tops.12196.Google Scholar
Park, G., Schmidt, A. M., Scheu, C., & DeShon, R. P. (2007). A process model of goal orientation and feedback seeking. Human Performance, 20, 119–45. doi: 10.1080/08959280701332042.Google Scholar
Penny, R. K. & McCann, B. (1964). The children's reactivity curiosity scale. Psychological Reports, 15, 323–334. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1964.15.1.323.Google Scholar
Piotrowski, J. T., Litman, J. A., & Valkenburg, P. (2014). Measuring epistemic curiosity in young children. Infant and Child Development, 23, 542–33. doi: 10.1002/icd.1847.Google Scholar
Powell, C., Nettelbeck, T., & Burns, N. R. (2016). Deconstructing intellectual curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 95, 147–51. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.037.Google Scholar
Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004). “Processing fluency and aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver's processing experience?” Personality and Social Psychology Review. 8, 364–82. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_3.Google Scholar
Reeve, J. (1993). The face of interest. Motivation and Emotion, 77, 353–75. doi: 10.1007/BF00992325.Google Scholar
Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2011). Revisiting the conceptualization, measurement, and generation of interest. Educational Psychologist, 46, 168–84. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.587723.Google Scholar
Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and learning. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Richards, J. B., Litman, J. A., & Roberts, D. H. (2013). Performance characteristics of measurement instruments of epistemic curiosity in third-year medical students. Medical Science Educator, 23, 355–63. doi: 10.1007/BF03341647.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. J. F., Warlow, S. M., & Berridge, K. C. (2014). Optogenetic excitation of central amygdala amplifies and narrows incentive motivation to pursue one reward above another. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 16567–80. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2013-14.2014.Google Scholar
Schneider, A., von Krogh, G., & Jäger, P. (2013). ‘What's coming next?' Epistemic curiosity and lurking behavior in online communities. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 293–303. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.09.008.Google Scholar
Schwartz, B. L., Travis, D. M., Castro, A. M., & Smith, S. M. (2000). The phenomenology of real and illusory tip-of-the-tongue states. Memory & Cognition, 28, 18–27. doi: 10.3758/BF03211571.Google Scholar
Schwartz, N. (2005). When thinking feels difficult: Meta-cognitive experiences in judgment and decision making. Medical Decision Making, 25, 105–12. doi: 10.1177/0272989X04273144.Google Scholar
Shin, L. M., & Liberzon, I. (2010). The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 169–91. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.83.Google Scholar
Silvia, P. J. (2005). What is interesting? Exploring the appraisal structure of interest. Emotion, 5, 89–102. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.89.Google Scholar
Silvia, P. (2017). Knowledge emotions: Feelings that foster learning, exploring, and reflecting. In Biswas-Diener, R. & Diener, E. (Eds.), Noba Textbook Series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. doi: nobaproject.com.Google Scholar
Spielberger, C. D. & Starr, L. M. (1994). Curiosity and exploratory behavior. In O'Neil, H. F. Jr., & Drillings, M. (Eds.), Motivation: Theory and research (pp. 221–43). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Sullivan, M. W. & Lewis, M. (2003). Emotional expressions of young infants and children: A practitioner's primer. Infants and Young Children, 16, 120–42. doi: 10.1097/00001163-200304000-00005.Google Scholar
Sullivan, M. & Litman, J. A. (2017). Infant expressions of I- and D-type epistemic curiosity within the first two months of life. Newark, NJ: Rutgers University.Google Scholar
VanLehn, K. (1988) Toward a theory of impasse-driven learning. In Mandl, H.. & Lesgold, A. (Eds.), Cognitive science: Learning issues for intelligent tutoring systems (pp. 19–41). New York, NY: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4684-6350-7_2.Google Scholar
Widner, R. L., Otani, H., & Winkelman, S. E. (2005). Tip-of-the-tongue experiences are not merely strong feeling-of-knowing experiences. The Journal of General Psychology, 132, 392–407. doi: 10.3200/GENP.132.4.392-407.Google Scholar
Zeshan, U. (2004). Interrogative constructions in signed languages: Cross-linguistic perspectives. Language, 80, 7–39.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×