Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T23:15:42.378Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

15 - Bonobo Sexual Behavior and Psychology

from Part III - Nonhuman Primate Sexual Behavior

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2022

By
Zanna Clay ,
Liza R. Moscovice  and
Thibaud Gruber
Edited by
Todd K. Shackelford
Todd K. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Oakland University, Michigan
Get access

Summary

Deep within the Salonga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, a shrill chorus of hooting suddenly erupts through the rainforest; a party of wild bonobos from the Bompusa community has just discovered a large fruit tree full of ripe fruits! As the bonobos rapidly start to climb up tree trunks into the canopy, their excited calls echo through the forest; “a food tree has been found!” Other community members quietly foraging and resting nearby, stop what they are doing, look up and start to rush towards the tree to join the other community members there. Among those joining the tree is Wilma, an adult female who joined the Bompusa community five years ago, as a young immigrant. When she emigrated from her natal group, during an intergroup encounter, Wilma was still a pre-pubescent female who was only beginning to exhibit a genital swelling. Now, Wilma is fully integrated into the community and in her sexual prime. Today, she displays a huge genital swelling in full tumescence, with a bright pink color and a gleaming sheen that advertises her receptivity. As Wilma reaches the canopy, she is greeted there by Camillo – the dominant male. Camillo is the adult son of Martha, one of the oldest alpha females in the community. The scene unfolds. Camillo moves over the branches, arching his back while presenting his erect penis to Wilma. Reaching for balance, Camillo grasps onto a branch while performing his sexual invitation. Wilma responds by quickly crouching and turning to direct her swelling towards him; as the pair copulate, Wilma emits loud copulation screams that are audible to anyone in the feeding tree. Afterwards, as Camillo returns to feeding, another bonobo approaches Wilma – this time it is Camillo’s mother, Martha; older and slower now, but still dominant and respected in the group. Martha leans back, widens her legs and beckons Wilma towards her in a typical solicitation for sexual interactions between females. But this time Wilma stays put – invitation refused. Martha tries again; this time, while holding onto the branch, she picks up her foot and gestures towards her own swelling to make her intentions clear. Despite her high status, her invitation is again refused. Not deterred, Martha tries again; leaning back now, pouting her lips into a duck face and giving a faint infantile whimper as she starts to get frustrated. With Wilma continuing to ignore her requests, the usually unflappable Martha loses all composure – her social expectations violated by this refusal by Wilma. She bares her teeth and starts to scream, she shakes branches and starts to run about. Now in a full temper tantrum, Martha suddenly descends the tree, screaming and voluntarily falling down into the undergrowth in her shock over this sexual rejection. The group is silenced by Martha’s outburst. Camillo and Wilma quietly look on, while continuing to feed on their fruits.

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Sexual Psychology , pp. 370 - 400
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alcock, J. (1987). Ardent adaptation. Journal of Natural History, 96, 4.Google Scholar
Annicchiarico, G., Bertini, M., Cordoni, G., & Palagi, E. (2020). Look at me while having sex! Eye-to-eye contact affects homosexual behaviour in bonobo females. Behaviour, 1–22.Google Scholar
Bancroft, J. (2005). The endocrinology of sexual arousal. Journal of Endocrinology, 186(3), 411.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2018). Evolving concepts of emotion and motivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1647.Google Scholar
Bliss-Moreau, E. (2017). Constructing nonhuman animal emotion. Current Opinion in Psychology, 17, 184–188.Google Scholar
Blount, B. G. (1990). Issues in bonobo (Pan paniscus) sexual behavior. American Anthropologist, 92, 702–714.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borrow, A. P., & Cameron, N. M. (2012). The role of oxytocin in mating and pregnancy. Hormones and Behavior, 61(3), 266–276.Google Scholar
Cabanac, M. (1971). Physiological role of pleasure. Science, 173(4002), 1103.Google Scholar
Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. (1974). Male–female, female–female, and male–male sexual behavior in the stumptail monkey, with special attention to the female orgasm. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 3, 95.Google Scholar
Clay, Z., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2015). Sex and strife: Post-conflict sexual contacts in bonobos. Behaviour, 152, 313–334.Google Scholar
Clay, Z., Pika, S., Gruber, T., & Zuberbühler, K. (2011). Female bonobos use copulation calls as social signals. Biology Letters, 7(4), 513–516.Google Scholar
Clay, Z., & Zuberbühler, K. (2011). The structure of bonobo copulation calls during reproductive and non-reproductive sex. Ethology, 117(12), 1158–1169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clay, Z., & Zuberbühler, K. (2012). Communication during sex among female bonobos: Effects of dominance, solicitation and audience. Scientific Reports, 2(1), 291.Google Scholar
Crespi, B. J. (2016). Oxytocin, testosterone, and human social cognition. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 91(2), 390–408.Google Scholar
Dahl, J. F. (1985). The external genitalia of female pygmy chimpanzees. The Anatomical Record, 211(1), 24–28.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (1987). Tension regulation and nonreproductive functions of sex in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). National Geographic Research, 3(3), 318–335.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (1990). Sociosexual behavior used for tension regulation in all age and sex combinations among bonobos. In Feierman, J. R. (Ed.), Pedophilia (pp. 378–393). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (1995). Bonobo sex and society. Scientific American, 272(3), 82–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Waal, F. B. M. (1997). Bonobo: The forgotten ape. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M. (2019). Mama’s last hug. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Deschner, T., Heistermann, M., Hodges, K., & Boesch, C. (2004). Female sexual swelling size, timing of ovulation, and male behavior in wild West African chimpanzees. Hormones and Behavior, 46(2), 204–215.Google Scholar
Douglas, P. H., Hohmann, G., Murtagh, R., Thiessen-Bock, R., & Deschner, T. (2016). Mixed messages: Wild female bonobos show high variability in the timing of ovulation in relation to sexual swelling patterns. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 16, 140.Google Scholar
Douglas, P. H., & Moscovice, L. R. (2015). Pointing and pantomime in wild apes? Female bonobos use referential and iconic gestures to request genito-genital rubbing. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 13999.Google Scholar
Emery Thompson, M., Stumpf, R. M., & Pusey, A. E. (2008). Female reproductive strategies and competition in apes: An introduction. International Journal of Primatology, 29(4), 815–821.Google Scholar
Enomoto, T. (1990). Social play and sexual behavior of the bonobo (Pan paniscus) with special reference to flexibility. Primates, 31(4), 469–480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fedurek, P., & Lehmann, J. (2017). The effect of excluding juveniles on apparent adult olive baboons (Papio anubis) social networks. PLOS ONE, 12(3), e0173146.Google Scholar
Fleischman, D. S. (2016). An evolutionary behaviorist perspective on orgasm. Socioaffective Neuroscience Psychology, 6, 32130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, C. A., Wolff, H. S., & Baker, J. A. (1970). Measurement of intravaginal and intra-uterine pressures during human coitus by radio-telemetry. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, 22, 243–251.Google Scholar
Fruth, B., & Hohmann, G. (2002). How bonobos handle hunts and harvests: Why share food? In Boesch, C., Hohmann, G., & Marchant, L. F. (Eds.), Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos (pp. 231–243). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fruth, B., & Hohmann, G. (2006). Social grease for females? Same-sex genital contacts in wild bonobos. In Sommer, V. & Vasey, P. L. (Eds.), Homosexual behaviour in animals: An evolutionary perspective (pp. 294–315). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Furuichi, T. (1987). Sexual swelling, receptivity, and grouping of wild pygmy chimpanzee females at Wamba, Zaïre. Primates, 28(3), 309–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furuichi, T. (1989). Social interactions and the life history of female Pan paniscus in Wamba, Zaire. International Journal of Primatology, 10, 173–197.Google Scholar
Furuichi, T. (2011). Female contributions to the peaceful nature of bonobo society. Evolutionary Anthropology, 20, 131–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furuichi, T. (2019). Bonobo and chimpanzee: The lessons of social coexistence. Springer Nature. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furuichi, T., Connor, R., & Hashimoto, C. (2014). Non-conceptive sexual interactions in monkeys, apes, and dolphins. In Yamagiwa, J. & Karczmarski, L. (Eds.), Primates and cetaceans. Primatology monographs (pp. 385–408). Tokyo: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furuichi, T., & Hashimoto, C. (2002). Why female bonobos have a lower copulation rate during estrus than chimpanzees. In Boesch, C., Hohmann, G. & Marchant, L. (Eds.), Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos (pp. 156–167). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Furuichi, T., & Hashimoto, C. (2004). Sex differences in copulation attempts in wild bonobos at Wamba. Primates, 45, 59–62.Google Scholar
Furuichi, T., & Ihobe, H. (1994). Variation in male relationships in bonobos and chimpanzees. Behaviour, 130, 212–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gangestad, S. W., & Grebe, N. M. (2017). Hormonal systems, human social bonding, and affiliation. Hormones and Behavior, 91, 122–135.Google Scholar
Genty, E., Neumann, C., & Zuberbühler, K. (2015). Complex patterns of signalling to convey different social goals of sex in bonobos (Pan paniscus). Scientific Reports, 5, 16135.Google Scholar
Gesquiere, L. R., Wango, E. O., Alberts, S. C., & Altmann, J. (2007). Mechanisms of sexual selection: Sexual swellings and estrogen concentrations as fertility indicators and cues for male consort decisions in wild baboons. Hormones and Behavior, 51, 114–125.Google Scholar
Goldstone, L. G., Sommer, V., Nurmi, N., Stephens, C., & Fruth, B. (2016). Food begging and sharing in wild bonobos (Pan paniscus): Assessing relationship quality? Primates, 57(3), 367–376.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gruber, T., & Clay, Z. (2016). A comparison between bonobos and chimpanzees: A review and update. Evolutionary Anthropology, 25, 239–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruber, T., Clay, Z., & Zuberbühler, K. (2010). A comparison of bonobo and chimpanzee tool use: Evidence for a female bias in the Pan lineage. Animal Behaviour, 80, 1023–1033.Google Scholar
Hare, B., & Kwetuenda, S. (2010). Bonobos voluntarily share their own food with others. Current Biology, 20, R230–R231.Google Scholar
Hare, B., Melis, A. P., Woods, V., Hastings, S., & Wrangham, R. (2007). Tolerance allows bonobos to outperform chimpanzees on a cooperative task. Current Biology, 17(7), 619–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hashimoto, C. (1997). Context and development of sexual behavior of wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) at Wamba, Zaire. International Journal of Primatology, 18(1), 1–21.Google Scholar
Hashimoto, C., & Furuichi, T. (1994). Social role and development of noncopulatory sexual behavior of wild bonobos. In Wrangham, R., McGrew, W. C., de Waal, F. B. M., & Heltne, P. G. (Eds.), Chimpanzee cultures (pp. 155–168). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Hashimoto, C., & Furuichi, T. (2006a). Comparison of behavioral sequence of copulation between chimpanzees and bonobos. Primates, 47, 51–55.Google Scholar
Hashimoto, C., & Furuichi, T. (2006b). Frequent copulations by females and high promiscuity in chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. In Newton-Fisher, N. E., Notman, H., Paterson, J. D., & Reynolds, V. (Eds.), Primates of western Uganda. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Heinrichs, M., Baumgartner, T., Kirschbaum, C., & Ehlert, U. (2003). Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress. Biological Psychiatry, 54(12), 1389–1398.Google Scholar
Hohmann, G., & Fruth, B. (2000). Use and function of genital contacts among female bonobos. Animal Behaviour, 60, 107–120.Google Scholar
Hohmann, G., & Fruth, B. (2003). Intra- and inter-sexual aggression by bonobos in the context of mating. Behaviour, 140, 1389–1413.Google Scholar
Hohmann, G., Mundry, R., & Deschner, T. (2009). The relationship between socio-sexual behavior and salivary cortisol in bonobos: Tests of the tension regulation hypothesis. American Journal of Primatology, 71, 223–232.Google Scholar
Hrdy, S. B. (1996). The evolution of female orgasms: Logic please but no atavism. Animal Behaviour, 52(4), 851–852.Google Scholar
Idani, G. (1991). Social relationships between immigrant and resident bonobo (Pan paniscus) females at Wamba. Folia Primatologica, 57, 83–95.Google Scholar
Kahlenberg, S. M., Thompson, M. E., Muller, M. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2008). Immigration costs for female chimpanzees and male protection as an immigrant counterstrategy to intrasexual aggression. Animal Behaviour, 76, 1497–1509.Google Scholar
Kano, T. (1980). Social behaviour of wild pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) of Wamba: A preliminary report. Journal of Human Evolution, 9, 243–260.Google Scholar
Kano, T. (1992). The last ape: Pygmy chimpanzee behavior and ecology. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Kitamura, K. (1989). Genito-genital contacts in the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus). African Studies Monographs, 10, 49–67.Google Scholar
Kret, M. E., Prochazkova, E., Sterck, E. H. M., & Clay, Z. (2020). Emotional expressions in human and non-human great apes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 115, 378–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeDoux, J. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron, 73, 653–676.Google Scholar
Lodé, T. (2020). A brief natural history of the orgasm. Frontiers in Life Science, 13, 34–44.Google Scholar
Mori, A. (1984). An ecological study of pygmy chimpanzees in Wamba, Zaire: A comparison with chimpanzees. Primates, 25, 255–278.Google Scholar
Moscovice, L. R., Deschner, T., & Hohmann, G. (2015). Welcome back: Responses of female bonobos (Pan paniscus) to fusions. PLOS ONE, 10(5), e0127305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscovice, L. R., Douglas, P. H., Martinez-Iñigo, L., Surbeck, M., Vigilant, L., & Hohmann, G. (2017). Stable and fluctuating social preferences and implications for cooperation among female bonobos at LuiKotale, Salonga National Park, DRC. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 163(1), 158–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscovice, L. R., Surbeck, M., Fruth, B., Hohmann, G., Jaeggi, A. V., & Deschner, T. (2019). The cooperative sex: Sexual interactions among female bonobos are linked to increases in oxytocin, proximity and coalitions. Hormones and Behavior, 116, 104581.Google Scholar
Muller, M. N., Kahlenberg, S. M., & Wrangham, R. W. (2009). Male aggression against females and sexual coercion in chimpanzees. In Muller, M. & Wrangham, R. W. (Eds.), Sexual coercion in primates and humans: an evolutionary perspective on male aggression against females (pp. 184–217). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Muller, M. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2004). Dominance, cortisol and stress in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 55(4), 332–340.Google Scholar
Nunn, C. L. (1999). The evolution of exaggerated sexual swellings in primates and the graded-signal hypothesis. Animal Behaviour, 58, 229–246.Google Scholar
Nurmi, N. O., Hohmann, G., Goldstone, L. G., Deschner, T., & Schülke, O. (2018). The “tolerant chimpanzee” – towards the costs and benefits of sociality in female bonobos. Behavioral Ecology, 29(6), 1325–1339.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J. (2011a). The basic emotional circuits of mammalian brains: Do animals have affective lives? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(9), 1791–1804.Google Scholar
Panksepp, J. (2011b). Cross-species affective neuroscience decoding of the primal affective experiences of humans and related animals. PLOS ONE, 6(9), e21236.Google Scholar
Paoli, T., Palagi, E., Tacconi, G., & Borgognini Tarli, S. (2006). Perineal swelling, intermenstrual cycle, and female sexual behavior in bonobos (Pan paniscus). American Journal of Primatology, 68, 333–347.Google Scholar
Parish, A. R. (1994). Sex and food control in the “uncommon chimpanzee”: How bonobo females overcome a phylogenetic legacy of male dominance. Ethology & Sociobiology, 15(3), 157–179.Google Scholar
Pradhan, G. R., Engelhardt, A., van Schaik, C. P., & Maestripieri, D. (2006). The evolution of female copulation calls in primates: A review and a new model. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 59(3), 333–343.Google Scholar
Prause, N. (2011). The human female orgasm: Critical evaluations of proposed psychological sequelae. Sexual Relationship Therapy, 26, 315–328.Google Scholar
Ryu, H., Hill, D. A., & Furuichi, T. (2015). Prolonged maximal sexual swelling in wild bonobos facilitates affiliative interactions between females. Behaviour, 152, 285–311.Google Scholar
Sakamaki, T., Behncke, I., Laporte, M. N. C., Mulavwa, M., Ryu, H., Takemoto, H., … & Furuichi, T. (2015). Intergroup transfer of females and social relationships between immigrants and residents in Bonobo (Pan paniscus) societies. In Furuichi, T., Yamagiwa, J., & Aureli, F. (Eds.), Dispersing primate females: Life history and social strategies in male-philopatric species (pp. 127–164). Tokyo: Springer Japan.Google Scholar
Sander, D. (2013). Models of emotion: The affective neuroscience approach handbook of human affective neuroscience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Silk, J. B. (2009). Nepotistic cooperation in non-human primate groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1533), 3243–3254.Google Scholar
Smuts, B. B., & Watanabe, J. M. (1990). Social relationships and ritualized greetings in adult male baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis). International Journal of Primatology, 11(2), 147–172.Google Scholar
Soares, M. C., Bshary, R., Fusani, L., Goymann, W., Hau, M., Hirschenhauser, K., & Oliveira, R. F. (2010). Hormonal mechanisms of cooperative behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 365(1553), 2737–2750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanford, C. B. (1998). The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos. Current Anthropology, 39, 4.Google Scholar
Stumpf, R. (2007). Chimpanzees and bonobos: Diversity within and between species. In Campbell, C. J., Fuentes, A., MacKinnon, K. C., Panger, M., & Bearder, S. K. (Eds.), Primates in perspective (pp. 321–344). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Surbeck, M., Boesch, C., Crockford, C., Thompson, M. E., Furuichi, T., Fruth, B., … & Langergraber, K. (2019). Males with a mother living in their group have higher paternity success in bonobos but not chimpanzees. Current Biology, 29(10), R354–R355.Google Scholar
Surbeck, M., Deschner, T., Schubert, G., Weltring, A., & Hohmann, G. (2012). Mate competition, testosterone and intersexual relationships in bonobos, Pan paniscus. Animal Behaviour, 83(3), 659–669.Google Scholar
Surbeck, M., & Hohmann, G. (2013). Intersexual dominance relationships and the influence of leverage on the outcome of conflicts in wild bonobos (Pan paniscus). Behavioral Ecology Sociobiology, 67, 1767–1780.Google Scholar
Surbeck, M., Langergraber, K. E., Fruth, B., Vigilant, L., & Hohmann, G. (2017). Male reproductive skew is higher in bonobos than chimpanzees. Current Biology, 27(13), R640–R641.Google Scholar
Surbeck, M., Mundry, R., & Hohmann, G. (2011). Mothers matter! Maternal support, dominance status and mating success in male bonobos (Pan paniscus). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278(1705), 590–598.Google Scholar
Takahata, Y., Ihobe, H., & Idani, G. (1996). Comparing copulations of chimpanzees and bonobos: do females exhibit proceptivity or receptivity? In McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., & Nishida, T. (Eds.), Great ape societies (pp. 146–155). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tokuyama, N., & Furuichi, T. (2016). Do friends help each other? Patterns of female coalition formation in wild bonobos at Wamba. Animal Behaviour, 119, 27–35.Google Scholar
Townsend, S. W., Deschner, T., & Zuberbühler, K. (2008). Female chimpanzees use copulation calls flexibly to prevent social competition. PLOS ONE, 3(6), e2431.Google Scholar
Trumble, B. C., Jaeggi, A. V., & Gurven, M. (2015). Evolving the neuroendocrine physiology of human and primate cooperation and collective action. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Biological Sciences, 370(1683), 20150014.Google Scholar
van Elsacker, L. (1995). A review of terminology on aggregation patterns in bonobos (Pan paniscus). International Journal of Primatology, 16, 37–52.Google Scholar
Vervaecke, H., Stevens, J., & van Elsacker, L. (2003). Interfering with others: Female–female reproductive competition in Pan paniscus. In Jones, C. B. (Ed.), Sexual selection and reproductive competition in primates: New perspectives and directions (pp. 231–253). Oklahoma: The American Society of Primatologists.Google Scholar
Wallen, K., & Lloyd, E. A. (2008). Clitoral variability compared with penile variability supports nonadaptation of female orgasm. Evolution & Development, 10(1), 1–2.Google Scholar
Wangham, R. (1993). The evolution of sexuality in chimpanzees and bonobos. Human Nature, 4, 47–79.Google Scholar
White, F. J., & Wood, K. D. (2007). Female feeding priority in bonobos, Pan paniscus, and the question of female dominance. American Journal of Primatology, 69(8), 837–850.Google Scholar
Wickler, W. (1967). Socio-sexual signals and their intra-specific imitation among primates. In Morris, D. (Ed.), Primate ethology (pp. 69–147). London: Weidenfield.Google Scholar
Williams, L. A., Brosnan, S. F., & Clay, Z. (2020). Anthropomorphism in comparative affective science: Advocating a mindful approach. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 115, 299–307.Google Scholar
Woods, V., & Hare, B. (2011). Bonobo but not chimpanzee infants use socio-sexual contact with peers. Primates, 52(2), 111–116.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. (1993). The evolution of sexuality in chimpanzees and bonobos. Human Nature, 4, 47–79.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, S. (2015). Non-reciprocal but peaceful fruit sharing in wild bonobos in Wamba. Behaviour, 152, 335–357.Google Scholar
Zumpe, D., & Michael, R. P. (1968). The clutching reaction and orgasm in the female rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Journal of Endocrinology, 40, 117.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×